Producing 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid and ketone using polyketide synthases

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides for a polyketide synthase (PKS) capable of synthesizing a 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid or ketone. The present invention also provides for a host cell comprising the PKS and when cultured produces the 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid or ketone.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/945,060, filed on Feb. 26, 2014, which is hereby incorporated by reference.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENTAL SUPPORT

This invention was made with government support under Contract No. DE-ACO2-05CH11231 awarded by the United States Department of Energy. The government has certain rights in the invention.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates generally to 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid and ketone production using polyketide synthases.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Type I polyketide synthases (PKSs) are programmable, multifunctional enzymes capable of possessing all of the catalytic capacity of fatty-acid synthases (FASs). However, unlike the FAS enzyme, which iteratively extends and fully reduces the β-carbonyl generated with each extension of the hydrocarbon backbone, PKS systems utilize a discreet set of enzymatic domains for each extension and reduction of the nascent chain. These sets, commonly referred to as modules, can incorporate a variety of extenders until resulting in different side chains. They also can encode between zero and three of the reducing domains associated with FASs leading to a ketone, hydroxy, double bond, or fully saturated carbon at the beta position of the growing polyketide chain (Hopwood, D. A. and D. H. Sherman. 1990. Molecular genetics of polyketides and its comparison to fatty acid biosynthesis. Annual Review of Genetics 24:37-66).

Due to their modularity, PKS systems have been extensively explored for production of “unnatural” natural products (Weissman, K. J. and P. F. Leadlay. 2005. Combinatorial biosynthesis of reduced polyketides. Nature Reviews Microbiology 3:925-936). Hundreds of these molecules have been produced, ranging from basic lactones to modified versions of well established drugs.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides for a polyketide synthase (PKS) capable of synthesizing a 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid or ketone. The PKS is not a naturally occurring PKS. In some embodiments of the invention, the 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid or ketone is not a compound synthesized by a naturally occurring PKS. In some embodiments of the invention, the PKS is a hybrid PKS comprising modules, modules, and/or portions thereof, or functional variants thereof, from two or more naturally occurring PKSs.

The present invention provides for a recombinant nucleic acid that encodes a polyketide synthase (PKS) of the present invention. The recombinant nucleic acid can be replicon capable of stable maintenance in a host cell. In some embodiments, the replicon is stably integrated into a chromosome of the host cell. In some embodiments, the replicon is a plasmid. The present invention also provides for a vector or expression vector comprising a recombinant nucleic acid of the present invention. The present invention provides for a host cell comprising any of the recombinant nucleic acid and/or PKS of the present invention. In some embodiments, the host cell, when cultured under a suitable condition, is capable of producing the 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid or ketone.

The present invention provides for a host cell comprising any of the recombinant nucleic acid and/or PKS of the present invention. In some embodiments, the host cell, when cultured, is capable of producing a 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid or ketone.

The present invention provides a method of producing a 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid or ketone, comprising: providing a host cell of the present invention, and culturing said host cell in a suitable culture medium such that the 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid or ketone is produced.

The present invention provides for a composition comprising a 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid or ketone isolated from a host cell from which the 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid or ketone was produced, and trace residues and/or contaminants of the host cell. Such trace residues and/or contaminants include cellular material produced by the lysis of the host cell.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The foregoing aspects and others will be readily appreciated by the skilled artisan from the following description of illustrative embodiments when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.

FIG. 1 shows the 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid molecules that can be produced using the invention. The PKS which synthesizes each 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid molecule is shown.

FIG. 2 shows the ketones molecules that can be produced using the invention. The PKS which synthesizes each ketone molecule is shown. The S1+E3+R2 PKS synthesizes the same ketone as S3+E1+R2 PKS. The S2+E3+R2 PKS synthesizes the same ketone as S3+E2+R2 PKS.

FIG. 3 shows types of modules employed and corresponding precursors utilized for incorporation into polyketide chains. The loading module is designated S. While any suitable loading domain can be used (such as those loading acetate and benzoic acid), only two examples are hereby shown. The remaining compounds represent the structures incorporated into the growing polyketide chain employing extender modules A-P. The dashed line indicates the C—C bond formed through Claisen condensation; atoms to the right of the bond and the C atom at the left of the dashed line represent the structures determined by the module employed. The R group represents the existing acyl chain prior to incorporation determined by the module.

FIG. 4 shows (A) Polyketide chain initiation and elongation reactions catalyzed by LipPks1. LipPks1 consists of an AT_(L) domain, an ACP_(L) domain, a KS domain, an AT domain, a KR domain, and an ACP domain. The phosphopantetheine prosthetic arm is shown as a wavy line. The extended polyketide chain tethered to the ACP domain is translocated to the downstream LipPks2 to complete the β-lipomycin biosynthesis. (B) Broad substrate specificity of LipPks1+TE. Enzymatic production of 1a-f was confirmed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis.

FIG. 5 shows LC-MS analysis of the in vitro biosynthesis of 1a. Isobutyryl-CoA (320 μM) and methylmalonyl-CoA (200 μM) were incubated for 17 h at 23° C. with 500 μM NADPH in the absence (A) or presence (B) of LipPks1+TE (0.5 μM). The resulting reaction mixtures were analyzed by LCMS in the selected ion monitoring mode (m/z 145). (C) LC-MS analysis of the chemically synthesized authentic standard (16 μM). The two peaks indicated by arrows are diastereomers of 1a. Retention times are shown atop the peaks.

FIG. 6 shows SDS-PAGE analysis of recombinant LipPks1+TE (259 kDa), (−NL)LipPks1+TE (239 kDa), and LipPks1 (229 kDa). Proteins were resolved by 3-8% tris-acetate gel and stained with Coomassie blue. (A) Soluble fractions. (B) Insoluble fractions. Lanes 1 and 5, molecular weight markers; 2 and 6, His-LipPks1+TE; 3 and 7, His-(−NL)LipPks1+TE; 4 and 8, His-LipPks1. (C) Purity of recombinant LipPks1+TE. The protein purified from E. coli K207-3 was analyzed by SDS-PAGE (4-20% tris-glycine gel) and stained with Coomasie blue. Lane 1, molecular weight markers; 2, His-LipPks1+TE.

FIG. 7 shows the sequence comparison between A2-type KR domains. A-2 type KR domains yield the corresponding (2S,3S) products⁶. The conserved tryptophan and histidine residues of A-2 type KR domains are highlighted.

FIG. 8 shows chain elongation reaction catalyzed by the module 1 of DEBS1 using methylmalonyl-CoA as a sole substrate. The module 1 consists of an ATL, an ACPL, a KS, an AT, a KR, and an ACP domain. The phosphopantetheine prosthetic arm is shown as a wavy line. In the absence of propionyl-CoA, the KS can be primed by the propionyl group on the ACP generated by decarboxylation of the methylmalonyl extender unit. Decarboxylative condensation then occurs between the propionyl group on the KS and the newly generated methylmalonyl extender unit on the ACP.

FIG. 9 shows LC-MS analysis of in vitro biosynthesis of 1b. Propionyl-CoA (320 μM) and methylmalonyl-CoA (200 μM) were incubated for 17 h at 23° C. with 500 mM NADPH in the absence (A) or the presence (B) of LipPks1+TE (0.5 μM). The resulting reaction mixtures were analyzed by LC-MS in the selected ion-monitoring mode (m/z=131). (C) LC-MS analysis of the chemically synthesized authentic standard (16 μM). Retention times are shown on the top of the peaks.

FIG. 10 shows LC-MS analysis of in vitro biosynthesis of 1c. n-Butyryl-CoA (320 μM) and methylmalonyl-CoA (200 μM) were incubated for 17 h at 23° C. with 500 mM NADPH in the absence (A) or the presence (B) of LipPks1+TE (0.5 μM). The resulting reaction mixtures were analyzed by LC-MS in the selected ion-monitoring mode (m/z=145). (C) LC-MS analysis of the chemically synthesized authentic standard (16 μM). Retention times are shown on the top of the peaks.

FIG. 11 shows LC-MS analysis of in vitro biosynthesis of 1d. 2-Methylbutyryl-CoA (320 μM) and methylmalonyl-CoA (200 μM) were incubated for 17 h at 23° C. with 500 mM NADPH in the absence (A) or the presence (B) of LipPks1+TE (0.5 μM). The resulting reaction mixtures were analyzed by LC-MS in the selected ion-monitoring mode (m/z=159). (C) LC-MS analysis of the chemically synthesized authentic standard (16 μM). The three peaks indicated by arrows are diastereomers of 1d. Retention times are shown on the top of the peaks.

FIG. 12 shows LC-MS analysis of in vitro biosynthesis of 1e. Isovaleryl-CoA (320 μM) and methylmalonyl-CoA (200 μM) were incubated for 17 h at 23° C. with 500 mM NADPH in the absence (A) or the presence (B) of LipPks1+TE (0.5 μM). The resulting reaction mixtures were analyzed by LC-MS in the selected ion-monitoring mode (m/z=159). (C) LC-MS analysis of the chemically synthesized authentic standard (16 μM). Retention times are shown on the top of the peaks.

FIG. 13 shows LC-MS analysis of in vitro biosynthesis of 1f. Pivaloyl-CoA (320 μM) and methylmalonyl-CoA (200 μM) were incubated for 17 h at 23° C. with 500 mM NADPH in the absence (A) or the presence (B) of LipPks1+TE (0.5 μM). The resulting reaction mixtures were analyzed by LC-MS in the selected ion-monitoring mode (m/z=159). (C) LC-MS analysis of the chemically synthesized authentic standard (16 μM). The two peaks indicated by arrows are diastereomers of 1f. Retention times are shown on the top of the peaks.

FIG. 14 shows engineered polyketide synthase (PKS) designs. Mutant 75: the KA-L-AT-PA-L of LipPks1+TE (starts from GTNAHVI and ends with PTTTAVQ (SEQ ID NO:5)) was replaced with KA-L-AT-PA-L from module 1 of the borrelidin PKS (starts from GTNAHVI and ends with PRARTVD (SEQ ID NO:6)). Mutant 87: the active site serine residue of KR domain (LFSSIAG, SEQ ID NO:7) of LipPks1+TE was mutated to alanine residue (LFSAIAG, SEQ ID NO:8). Mutant 88: the active site serine residue of KR domain (LFSSIAG, SEQ ID NO:7) of mutant 75 was mutated to alanine residue (LFSAIAG, SEQ ID NO:9). Abbreviations: ACP, acyl carrier protein; ACP_(L), loading acyl carrier protein; AT, acyltransferase; AT_(L), loading acyltransferase; KA-L, KS-AT linker; KR, ketoreductase; KS, ketosynthase; PA-L, post AT linker; TE, thioesterase.

FIG. 15 shows structurally diverse ketone production by engineered PKSs. LipPks1 consists of a loading didomain (an AT_(L) and an ACP_(L)), a KS, an AT, a KR, and an ACP domain. The phosphopantetheine prosthetic arm is shown as a wavy line. The extended polyketide chains tethered to the ACP domain are translocated to the downstream TE to release β-keto-carboxylic acids in the absence of NADPH or when the KR domain is inactivated. The corresponding ketones are accelerated when β-keto-carboxylic acids are heated. (A) Ethyl ketones produced by LipPks1+TE. (B) Methyl ketones produced by the LipPks1+TE mutant (mutant 75) where the native AT domain was replaced with an AT domain from the borrelidin PKS that is specific to malonyl-CoA.

FIG. 16 shows LC-MS analysis of the in vitro production of 2-11. (A) Products 2-6: Propionyl-CoA, n-butyryl-CoA, isobutyryl-CoA, 2-methylbutyryl-CoA, or isovaleryl-CoA was incubated with methylmalonyl-CoA for 17 h at 23° C. in the presence of LipPks1+TE. (B) Products 7-11: Propionyl-CoA, n-butyryl-CoA, isobutyryl-CoA, 2-methylbutyryl-CoA, or isovaleryl-CoA was incubated with malonyl-CoA for 17 h at 23° C. in the presence of mutant 75. The resulting reaction mixtures were quenched and heated form ketones. The supernatants (top) and the corresponding authentic standards (bottom) were analyzed by LC-MS.

FIG. 17 shows LC-MS analysis of the in vivo production of 3 and MEK. Closed circles: Production of 3 by overexpressing mutant 87 in E. coli K207-3 in the presence of propionate. Open circles: Production of MEK by overexpressing mutant 88 in E. coli K207-3 in the presence of propionate. The resulting cultures were quenched and heated to form ketones. The supernatants were analyzed by LC-MS.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Before the present invention is described, it is to be understood that this invention is not limited to particular embodiments described, as such may, of course, vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting, since the scope of the present invention will be limited only by the appended claims.

Where a range of values is provided, it is understood that each intervening value, to the tenth of the unit of the lower limit unless the context clearly dictates otherwise, between the upper and lower limits of that range is also specifically disclosed. Each smaller range between any stated value or intervening value in a stated range and any other stated or intervening value in that stated range is encompassed within the invention. The upper and lower limits of these smaller ranges may independently be included or excluded in the range, and each range where either, neither or both limits are included in the smaller ranges is also encompassed within the invention, subject to any specifically excluded limit in the stated range. Where the stated range includes one or both of the limits, ranges excluding either or both of those included limits are also included in the invention.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Although any methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the present invention, the preferred methods and materials are now described. All publications mentioned herein are incorporated herein by reference to disclose and describe the methods and/or materials in connection with which the publications are cited.

It must be noted that as used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms “a”, “and”, and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “a ketone” includes a plurality of such ketones, and so forth.

The term “functional variant” describes an enzyme that has a polypeptide sequence that is at least 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or 99% identical to any one of the enzymes described herein. The “functional variant” enzyme may retain amino acids residues that are recognized as conserved for the enzyme, and may have non-conserved amino acid residues substituted or found to be of a different amino acid, or amino acid(s) inserted or deleted, but which does not affect or has insignificant effect its enzymatic activity as compared to the enzyme described herein. The “functional variant” enzyme has an enzymatic activity that is identical or essentially identical to the enzymatic activity of the enzyme described herein. The “functional variant” enzyme may be found in nature or be an engineered mutant thereof.

These and other objects, advantages, and features of the invention will become apparent to those persons skilled in the art upon reading the details of the invention as more fully described below.

Polyketide Synthases (PKS)

The present invention provides for a polyketide synthase (PKS) capable of synthesizing a 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid or ketone. The PKS is not a naturally occurring PKS. In some embodiments of the invention, the 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid or ketone is not a compound synthesized by a naturally occurring PKS. In some embodiments of the invention, the PKS is a hybrid PKS comprising modules, domains, and/or portions thereof, or functional variants thereof, from two or more PKSs.

In some embodiments of the invention, the 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid has the following chemical structure:

wherein R₁ is —H, each R₂ is independently —H, —CH₃, —CH₂CH₃, —CH₂CH₂CH₃, —CH(CH₃)₂, —CH(CH₃)CH₂CH₃, —CH₂CH(CH₃)₂, —C₆H₁₁, or —C₆H₅, and R₃ is independently —H, —CH₃, —CH₂CH₃, —CH₂CH₂Cl, —CH₂CH═CH₂, or —CH₂CH₂COCH₃. In some embodiments of the invention, the 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid is any one of the 3-hydroxycarboxylic acids shown in FIG. 1. The 3-hydroxycarboxylic acids includes the molecules having R and S forms independently at the α and β carbons.

In some embodiments of the invention, the ketone has the following chemical structure:

wherein each R is independently —CH₃, —CH₂CH₃, —CH₂CH₂CH₃, —CH(CH₃)₂, —CH(CH₃)CH₂CH₃, —CH₂CH(CH₃)₂, —C₆H₁₁, or —C₆H₅, and each R′ is independently —CH₃, —CH₂CH₃, —CH₂CH₂Cl, —CH₂CH═CH₂, or —CH₂CH₂COCH₃. In some embodiments of the invention, the ketone is any one of the ketones shown in FIG. 2.

3-Hydroxycarboxylic acids can be polymerized chemically and biologically to produce polyesters with diverse functions. In order to produce 3-hydroxycarboxylic acids in microbes from renewable carbon sources such as sugars, one can engineer LipPks1, a polyketide synthase subunit of the lipomycin synthase. LipPks1 comprises of a loading acyltransferase domain, a loading acyl carrier protein domain, a ketosynthase domain, an acyltransferase (AT) domain, a ketoreductase (KR) domain, and an acyl carrier protein (ACP) domain. A thioesterase (TE) domain from the 6-deoxyriboerythronolide B synthase can be appended to the C-terminus of the ACP domain of LipPks1 (LipPks1+TE) to release the reaction intermediates attached onto the ACP domain as 3-hydroxycarboxylic acids. LipPks1+TE can be incubated with a variety of starter substrates (acyl-CoAs), the extension substrate (methylmalonyl-CoA), and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) for the production of 3-hydroxy-2-methylpentanoic acid, 3-hydroxy-2-methylhexanoic acid, 3-hydroxy-2,4-dimethylpentanoic acid, 3-hydroxy-2,4-dimethylhexanoic acid, 3-hydroxy-2,5-dimethylhexanoic acid, and 3-hydroxy-2,4,4-trimethylpentanoic acid. Currently none of these molecules are not commercially available. By swapping the AT domain and the KR domain, and inserting a dehydratase (DH) domain and an enoyl reductase (ER) domain, one can produce over 150 different 3-hydroxycarboxylic acids, almost all of which are not commercially available.

In some embodiments, the PKS comprises (A) a LipPks1, or functional variant thereof, and (B) a thioesterase (TE) domain that catalyzes the same reaction as a TE of 6-deoxyriboerythronolide B synthase, wherein (B) is linked to the C-terminus of the ACP domain of (A).

Ketones can be used as solvents, flavors, and fragrances. For example, 2-butanone and 4-methyl-2-pentanone are industrially important solvents. 2-Pentanone is a food additive for human consumption permitted by U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 3-Ketocarboxylic acids can be converted into ketones by spontaneous decarboxylation. To produce ketones, NADPH can be removed from the above reactions. The following ketones can be produced: 3-pentanone, 3-hexanone, 2-methyl-3-pentanone, 4-methyl-3-hexanone, and 5-methyl-3-hexanone. By swapping the AT domain, one can produce over 50 different ketones, most of which are not commercially available. By further inactivating the KR domain, one can produce these ketones in microbes.

Complex polyketides comprise a large class of natural products that are synthesized in bacteria (mainly members actinomycete family; e.g. Streptomyces), fungi and plants. Polyketides form the aglycone component of a large number of clinically important drugs, such as antibiotics (e.g. erythromycin, tylosin), antifungal agents (e.g. nystatin), anticancer agents (e.g. epothilone), immunosuppressives (e.g. rapamycin), etc. Though these compounds do not resemble each other either in their structure or their mode of action, they share a common basis for their biosynthesis, which is carried out by a group of enzymes designated polyketide synthases.

Polyketide synthases (PKS) employ short chain fatty acyl CoAs in Claisen condensation reactions to produce polyketides. Unlike fatty acid synthases which utilize acetyl CoA as the starter and malonyl CoA as the extender units, and use a single module iteratively to produce the nascent acyl chains, PKSs are composed of discrete modules, each catalyzing the chain growth of a single step. Modules can differ from each other in composition so that overall, a number of different starters (e.g. acetyl CoA, propionyl CoA) and extenders, some of which contain stereospecific methyl (or ethyl) side chains can be incorporated. In addition, PKS modules do not always reduce the 3-carbonyl formed from condensation but may leave it either unreduced (ketone), partially reduced (hydroxyl, 2,3-ene) or fully reduced (3-methylene). Many polyketide synthases employ malonyl CoA or [S]-2-methylmalonyl CoA as the starter for polyketide synthesis. In such cases the terminal carboxyl group is usually removed by a decarboxylase domain present at the N-terminus of the corresponding loading domain of the PKS. In summary, the structure (and chirality) of the α-carbon and β-carbonyl is determined by the module of the PKS employed in the synthesis of the growing chain at each particular step. Because of the correspondence between use of modules in the synthesis and the structure of the polyketide produced, it is possible to program the synthesis to produce a compound of desired structure by selection and genetic manipulation of polyketide synthases. Hence, the programming of PKSs to produce dicarboxylic acids can be accomplished by straightforward removal of the N-terminal decarboxylase domain from the loading module. FIG. 3 shows the various modules and the precursor utilized by each module for incorporation into the corresponding nascent acyl (polyketide) chain to give rise to the range of compounds of interest. Table 1 provides a PKS source for each module (see FIG. 3). Each PKS source is well-known to one skilled in the art is readily available. In addition, for each module taught in Table 1, there may be other modules from other PKS that can be used. In addition, other structures can be incorporated in the ketide which are not shown in Table 1 and FIG. 3. For example, a loading module that can be used is the benzoate loading module of soraphen PKS, the isobutyrate loading module of the lipomycin PKS or bafilomycin PKS, or the acrylate loading module from the dificidin pathway. The acrylate loading module from the dificidin pathway is proposed to load lactate and dehydrate it to the arylyl-ACP (Chen, 2006, J. Bact. 188:4024-4036; hereby incorporated by reference).

The present invention includes the use of functional variants of the PKS modules, domains, and portions thereof.

TABLE 1 PKS sources of the various modules. Module PKS Source S1 Spiramycin PKS Loading Domain (with inactivation or deletion of the KS^(Q) domain) S2 Erythromycin PKS Loading Domain (with inactivation or deletion of the KS^(Q) domain) S3 Spiramycin PKS Loading Domain S4 Erythromycin PKS Loading Domain A Rifamycin PKS Module 2 B Oligomycin PKS Module 1 C Spiramycin PKS Module 1 D Pikromycin PKS Module 2 E Oligomycin PKS Module 3 F Erythromycin PKS Module 3 G Oligomycin PKS Module 5 H Primaricin PKS Module 7 I Tylosin PKS Module 1 J Erythromycin PKS Module 1 K Avermectin PKS Module 7 L Rapamycin PKS Module 1 M Erythromycin PKS Module 4 N Pederin Module 2 O Ascomycin Module 4 P FK506 Module 4 Curacin A Chain Termination Q Module

All extender modules carry the β-acyl ACP synthase (commonly called the ketosynthase or KS) domain, which conducts the decarboxylative condensation step between the extender and the growing polyketide chain, and the acyl carrier protein (ACP) domain that carries the growing acyl chain and presents it to the cognate reductive domains for reduction of the β-carbonyl. Modules can differ from each other in composition so that a number of different starter and extender units, some of which contain stereospecific side chains (e.g. methyl, ethyl, propylene) can be incorporated. The acyltransferase (AT) domain of each module determines the extender unit (e.g. malonyl CoA, methylmalonyl CoA, etc.) incorporated. In addition, PKS modules do not always reduce the β-carbonyl formed from condensation but may leave it either unreduced (ketone), partially reduced (hydroxyl, 2,3-ene) or fully reduced (3-methylene). The ketoreductase (KR) domain reduces the ketone to the OH function (stereospecifically); the dehydratase (DH) domain removes water from the α and β carbons leaving an α,β trans-double bond; the enoylreductase (ER) domain reduces the double bond to a β-methylene center; the reductive state of the β-carbonyl, therefore, is determined by the presence of functional reductive domains in the corresponding module. Less commonly, modules are found to contain an additional C-methylation domain (yielding an additional α-methyl side chain, as in epothilone). The makeup of the PKS, therefore, determines the choice of starter and extender acyl units incorporated, the extent of reduction at each condensation step, and the total number of units added to the chain. The wide diversity of structures of polyketides seen in nature is attributed to the diversity in PKS compositions.

A partial list of sources of PKS sequences that can be used in making the PKSs of the present invention, for illustration and not limitation, includes Ambruticin (U.S. Pat. No. 7,332,576); Avermectin (U.S. Pat. No. 5,252,474; MacNeil et al., 1993, Industrial Microorganisms: Basic and Applied Molecular Genetics, Baltz, Hegeman, & Skatrud, eds. (ASM), pp. 245-256; MacNeil et al., 1992, Gene 115: 119-25); Candicidin (FRO008) (Hu et al., 1994, Mol. Microbiol. 14: 163-72); Curacin A (Chang et al., 2004, J. Nat. Prod., 67 (8), pp 1356-1367; Gu et al., 2009, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 131 (44), pp 16033-16035); Epothilone (U.S. Pat. No. 6,303,342); Erythromycin (WO 93/13663; U.S. Pat. No. 5,824,513; Donadio et al., 1991, Science 252:675-79; Cortes et al., 1990, Nature 348:176-8); FK506 (Motamedi et al., 1998, Eur. J. Biochem. 256:528-34; Motamedi et al., 1997, Eur. J. Biochem. 244:74-80); FK520 or ascomycin (U.S. Pat. No. 6,503,737; see also Nielsen et al., 1991, Biochem. 30:5789-96); Jerangolid (U.S. Pat. No. 7,285,405); Leptomycin (U.S. Pat. No. 7,288,396); Lovastatin (U.S. Pat. No. 5,744,350); Nemadectin (MacNeil et al., 1993, supra); Niddamycin (Kakavas et al., 1997, J. Bacteriol. 179:7515-22); Oleandomycin (Swan et al., 1994, Mol. Gen. Genet. 242:358-62; U.S. Pat. No. 6,388,099; Olano et al., 1998, Mol. Gen. Genet. 259:299-308); Pederin (PCT publication no. WO 2003/044186); Pikromycin (Xue et al., 2000, Gene 245:203-211); Pimaricin (PCT publication no. WO 2000/077222); Platenolide (EP Pat. App. 791,656); Rapamycin (Schwecke et al., 1995, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92:7839-43); Aparicio et al., 1996, Gene 169:9-16); Rifamycin (August et al., 1998, Chemistry & Biology, 5: 69-79); Soraphen (U.S. Pat. No. 5,716,849; Schupp et al., 1995, J. Bacteriology 177: 3673-79); Spiramycin (U.S. Pat. No. 5,098,837); Tylosin (EP 0 791,655; Kuhstoss et al., 1996, Gene 183:231-36; U.S. Pat. No. 5,876,991). Additional suitable PKS coding sequences are readily available to one skilled in the art, or remain to be discovered and characterized, but will be available to those of skill (e.g., by reference to GenBank). Each of the references cited is hereby specifically and individually incorporated by reference.

Of the more than thirty PKSs examined, the correspondence between use of modules in the biosynthesis and the structure of the polyketide produced is fully understood both at the level of the protein sequence of the PKS and the DNA sequence of the corresponding genes. The programming of modules into polyketide structure can be identified by sequence determination. It is possible to clone (or synthesize) DNA sequences corresponding to desired modules and transfer them as fully functioning units to heterologous, otherwise non-polyketide producing hosts such as E. coli (B. A. Pfeifer, S. J. Admiraal, H. Gramajo, D. E. Cane, C. Khosla, Science 291, 1790 (2001); hereby incorporated by reference) and Streptomyces (C. M. Kao, L. Katz, C. Khosla, Science 265, 509 (1994); hereby incorporated by reference). Additional genes employed for polyketide biosynthesis have also been identified. Genes that determine phosphopantetheine:protein transferase (PPTase) that transfer the 4-phosphopantetheine co-factor of the ACP domains, commonly present in polyketide producing hosts, have been cloned in E. coli and other hosts (K. J. Weissman, H. Hong, M. Oliynyk, A. P. Siskos, P. F. Leadlay, Chembiochem 5, 116 (2004); hereby incorporated by reference). It is also possible to re-program polyketide biosynthesis to produce a compound of desired structure by either genetic manipulation of a single PKS or by construction of a hybrid PKS composed of modules from two or more sources (K. J. Weissman, H. Hong, M. Oliynyk, A. P. Siskos, P. F. Leadlay, Chembiochem 5, 116 (2004); hereby incorporated by reference).

Recombinant methods for manipulating modular PKS genes to make the PKSs of the present invention are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,672,491; 5,843,718; 5,830,750; 5,712,146; and 6,303,342; and in PCT publication nos. WO 98/49315 and WO 97/02358; hereby incorporated by reference. A number of genetic engineering strategies have been used with various PKSs to demonstrate that the structures of polyketides can be manipulated to produce novel polyketides (see the patent publications referenced supra and Hutchinson, 1998, Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 1:319-329, and Baltz, 1998, Trends Microbiol. 6:76-83; hereby incorporated by reference). In some embodiments, the components of the hybrid PKS are arranged onto polypeptides having interpolypeptide linkers that direct the assembly of the polypeptides into the functional PKS protein, such that it is not required that the PKS have the same arrangement of modules in the polypeptides as observed in natural PKSs. Suitable interpolypeptide linkers to join polypeptides and intrapolypeptide linkers to join modules within a polypeptide are described in PCT publication no. WO 00/47724, hereby incorporated by reference.

The vast number of polyketide pathways that have been elucidated provide a host of different options to produce these polyketides as well as the large number of derivatives. While the products can be vastly different in size and functionality, all employ virtually the same strategy for biosynthesis. The exact interfaces between non-cognate enzyme partners will be determined on a case-by-case basis. For example, ACP-linker-KS and ACP-linker-TE regions from the proteins of interest can be aligned to examine the least disruptive fusion point for the hybrid synthase. Genetic constructions will employ sequence and ligation independent cloning (SLIC) so as to eliminate the incorporation of genetic “scarring”.

In some embodiments, the PKS capable of producing a 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid or ketone of interest can be produced by feeding or exogenously providing the appropriate starter CoA to the host cell comprising the PKS the various 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid or ketone can be produced. In some embodiments, a precursor molecule is required by the PKS to produce the polyketide of interest. The precursor molecule can be fed or exogenously provided to the host cell comprising the PKS, or the host cell can comprise the enzymes capable of biosynthesizing the precursor molecule from a simpler molecule that can be fed or exogenously provided to the host cell or the host cell naturally endogenously produces.

Nucleic Acids Encoding the PKS

The present invention provides for a recombinant nucleic acid that encodes a polyketide synthase (PKS) of the present invention. The recombinant nucleic acid can be a double-stranded or single-stranded DNA, or RNA. The recombinant nucleic acid can encode an open reading frame (ORF) of the PKS of the present invention. The recombinant nucleic acid can also comprise promoter sequences for transcribing the ORF in a suitable host cell. The recombinant nucleic acid can also comprise sequences sufficient for having the recombinant nucleic acid stably replicate in a host cell. The recombinant nucleic acid can be replicon capable of stable maintenance in a host cell. In some embodiments, the replicon is a plasmid. The present invention also provides for a vector or expression vector comprising a recombinant nucleic acid of the present invention. The present invention provides for a host cell comprising any of the recombinant nucleic acid and/or PKS of the present invention. In some embodiments, the host cell, when cultured under a suitable condition, is capable of producing the 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid or ketone.

It will be apparent to one of skill in the art that a variety of recombinant vectors can be utilized in the practice of aspects of the invention. As used herein, “vector” refers to polynucleotide elements that are used to introduce recombinant nucleic acid into cells for either expression or replication. Selection and use of such vehicles is routine in the art. An “expression vector” includes vectors capable of expressing DNAs that are operatively linked with regulatory sequences, such as promoter regions. Thus, an expression vector refers to a recombinant DNA or RNA construct, such as a plasmid, a phage, recombinant virus or other vector that, upon introduction into an appropriate host cell, results in expression of the cloned DNA. Appropriate expression vectors are well known to those of skill in the art and include those that are replicable in eukaryotic cells and/or prokaryotic cells and those that remain episomal or those that integrate into the host cell genome.

The vectors may be chosen to contain control sequences operably linked to the resulting coding sequences in a manner that expression of the coding sequences may be effected in an appropriate host. Suitable control sequences include those that function in eukaryotic and prokaryotic host cells. If the cloning vectors employed to obtain PKS genes encoding derived PKS lack control sequences for expression operably linked to the encoding nucleotide sequences, the nucleotide sequences are inserted into appropriate expression vectors. This can be done individually, or using a pool of isolated encoding nucleotide sequences, which can be inserted into host vectors, the resulting vectors transformed or transfected into host cells, and the resulting cells plated out into individual colonies. Suitable control sequences for single cell cultures of various types of organisms are well known in the art. Control systems for expression in yeast are widely available and are routinely used. Control elements include promoters, optionally containing operator sequences, and other elements depending on the nature of the host, such as ribosome binding sites. Particularly useful promoters for prokaryotic hosts include those from PKS gene clusters that result in the production of polyketides as secondary metabolites, including those from Type I or aromatic (Type II) PKS gene clusters. Examples are act promoters, tcm promoters, spiramycin promoters, and the like. However, other bacterial promoters, such as those derived from sugar metabolizing enzymes, such as galactose, lactose (lac) and maltose, are also useful. Additional examples include promoters derived from biosynthetic enzymes such as for tryptophan (trp), the β-lactamase (bla), bacteriophage lambda PL, and T5. In addition, synthetic promoters, such as the tac promoter (U.S. Pat. No. 4,551,433; hereby incorporated by reference), can be used.

As noted, particularly useful control sequences are those which themselves, or with suitable regulatory systems, activate expression during transition from growth to stationary phase in the vegetative mycelium. Illustrative control sequences, vectors, and host cells of these types include the modified Streptomyces coelicolor CH999 and vectors described in PCT publication no. WO 96/40968 and similar strains of Streptomyces lividans. See U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,672,491; 5,830,750; 5,843,718; and 6,177,262, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference. Other regulatory sequences may also be desirable which allow for regulation of expression of the PKS sequences relative to the growth of the host cell. Regulatory sequences are known to those of skill in the art, and examples include those which cause the expression of a gene to be turned on or off in response to a chemical or physical stimulus, including the presence of a regulatory compound. Other types of regulatory elements may also be present in the vector, for example, enhancer sequences.

Selectable markers can also be included in the recombinant expression vectors. A variety of markers are known which are useful in selecting for transformed cell lines and generally comprise a gene whose expression confers a selectable phenotype on transformed cells when the cells are grown in an appropriate selective medium. Such markers include, for example, genes that confer antibiotic resistance or sensitivity to the plasmid.

The various PKS nucleotide sequences, or a mixture of such sequences, can be cloned into one or more recombinant vectors as individual cassettes, with separate control elements or under the control of a single promoter. The PKS subunits or components can include flanking restriction sites to allow for the easy deletion and insertion of other PKS subunits. The design of such restriction sites is known to those of skill in the art and can be accomplished using the techniques described above, such as site-directed mutagenesis and PCR. Methods for introducing the recombinant vectors of the present invention into suitable hosts are known to those of skill in the art and typically include the use of CaCl₂ or other agents, such as divalent cations, lipofection, DMSO, protoplast transformation, conjugation, and electroporation.

Host Cells Comprising the PKS

The present invention provides for a host cell comprising any of the recombinant nucleic acid and/or PKS of the present invention. In some embodiments, the host cell, when cultured, is capable of producing a 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid or ketone. The host cell can be a eukaryotic or a prokaryotic cell. Suitable eukaryotic cells include yeast cells, such as from the genus Saccharomyces or Schizosaccharomyces. A suitable species from the genus Saccharomyces is Saccharomyces cerevisiae. A suitable species from the genus Schizosaccharomyces is Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Suitable prokaryotic cells include Escherichia coli or Streptomyces species, such as S. coelicolor and S. lividans.

The PKS can be in a host cell, or isolated or purified. The PKS can synthesize the 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid or ketone in vivo (in a host cell) or in vitro (in a cell extract or where all necessary chemical components or starting materials are provided). The present invention provides methods of producing the 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid or ketone using any of these in vivo or in vitro means.

The amino acid sequence of LipPks1 of Streptomyces aureofaciens Tü117 (GenBank accession no. Q30CS2) comprises:

(SEQ ID NO: 10)         10         20         30         40         50         60 MAGPPPFPRR RGPSGRRRCG GRATPGSVRD RTGRRPAAVP SRAVCAADLC EENDDGSKNV         70         80         90        100        110        120 SEHRGSAGGS VLFPRTGTVL PWVLTGPGAA AVRARSEALR THLRASTEWS PAGVGQALLA        130        140        150        160        170        180 GTGAGADTHR AVVLAGDRAQ TLNALAALSA GADHPAVFTS TRADASPAGP VFVFPGQGSQ        190        200        210        220        230        240 WTGMARELLD SAPVFARKLH DCADAFAPYL GHSLLDSVTG AAGGPEPVGA DVVQPALFAV        250        260        270        280        290        300 MVALTDLWNA AGVAPGALLG HSLGELAAAH VAGVLSLDDS ARVVARWSQA QATLAGRGDM        310        320        330        340        350        360 VSVLLPADEL ADLLDRRWPG RLVVAVENGP GSAVASGDLD AAAELVAHLT AEGIHARRVD        370        380        390        400        410        420 VGLAAHSPHI DAILPRIRAD IAPIRAHTPS IPVYSALHGG ALDGTPMDAA YWCRNLRSTV        430        440        450        460        470        480 RFADATRAAL EAGHTTFVEV SPHPVLTTAM EVSATRAAHA ATVLGTLRRG EGGPSRFLAS        490        500        510        520        530        540 LAELHVSGGD ADLRTVLPAS QAAGLPETVL TAGPRGESAD GDSRHEVLCA RLAPLDPAER        550        560        570        580        590        600 RAQLLTVVRE SAAAALDGDD QGSIDGRRTF RDLGITSLAA VGIRDRLHSA TGLRLSPTVV        610        620        630        640        650        660 FDHPTPDALA AHLDTELFGT GADAEPAPAA GGRAVPHDEP MAIVGMACRY PGGVGAPADL        670        680        690        700        710        720 WRTVLAGVDA VGPLPADRGW NIADGYDPEL AGPGRFSQRE GGFLHDAAEF DAEFFGISPR        730        740        750        760        770        780 EALAMDPQQR LALESAWEAI EDAGLDAHSL RGSRTGVFLG LITQDYGPRA GEPTTRAGAV        790        800        810        820        830        840 EGHLFLGSTG SVASGRLSYT LGLEGPSLTI DTACSSSLVA LHEACQALRT GDCDMALTGG        850        860        870        880        890        900 VTVMPSTGML VEFSRQRGLS PDGRCKAFSA SADGFGLAEG VGMLVVERLS DARRLGHRVL        910        920        930        940        950        960 AVVRGSAVNQ DGASNGLSAP SGPAQQRVIR QALVNAGVQA SQVDVVEAHG TGTKLGDPIE        970        980        990       1000       1010       1020 AQALQATYGQ GRPAERPLWL GSLKSNIGHA QAAAGVGGVI KMVMALREGV LPPTLHADEP       1030       1040       1050       1060       1070       1080 SPHIDWSAGQ VRLLTEEREW PEAGHPRRAA VSSFGVSGTN AHVILEAAPG TGGAPEVSDG       1090       1100       1110       1120       1130       1140 VLGSAPETVP WVLSAASPDA LRAQAERLRG HVAERPGLAS ADVAFALATR RTALEYRAVA       1150       1160       1170       1180       1190       1200 VGAERDELLD TLDALSAGRP APRAVPGDAA AHSRRPVFVF PGQGSQWAGM AVELLDSSPV       1210       1220       1230       1240       1250       1260 FADSMHACSE ALNEFVDWNL LEVLRSGDEE LSNRVDVVQP VLWAVMVSLA ALWQACGVRP       1270       1280       1290       1300       1310       1320 AAVVGHSQGE IAAAVVAGAL SLRDGARVVA LRSAVIARLL AGKGAMASVA LASDTVRERL       1330       1340       1350       1360       1370       1380 TPWEGRLSLA AVNGPSSSVV CGHLDALDEF VSALEHDGVR VRRIAVDYAS HSVFVEQAEE       1390       1400       1410       1420       1430       1440 ELRNVLTEVS PLPGQVPFYS TVTGAVLDTT TLDAGYWYRN LRQTVRFEET VRELTRRGHD       1450       1460       1470       1480       1490       1500 AFIEVSAHPV LTVGIQDTLE ATGTRHAVCG TLRRGEGGAQ RLLTSLGEAW VAGIAVDWSR       1510       1520       1530       1540       1550       1560 LTPTTTAVQL PTYAFQHQRY WLDSTTANTG DRPAADRDTA FWEAVQHTDL DAFAAELDIA       1570       1580       1590       1600       1610       1620 PDAPLGTVLP ALADWRQRLR TAAAVDAWRY RTAFKRLPDA PGAPVLTGSW LAVVPVRHLD       1630       1640       1650       1660       1670       1680 DPSVTTSLDA VAKAGAEVVQ LAIEDADADV DRLTERLRGL VAGLGAAPAG IMSFLGLDEE       1690       1700       1710       1720       1730       1740 RHRDHPAMPS GLATSLALVR ALGRAGIGAP LWMVTREAVA AGQDTHPHAP LGSLIWGLGQ       1750       1760       1770       1780       1790       1800 VTALEHADRW GGLIDLPGVC DARVARMLCA GLSGRGAEDQ LALRPSGTFV RRLAHIPGEQ       1810       1820       1830       1840       1850       1860 RAARRSWQPR GTVIVTGGTG ALGAVLARWL ATEDAEHLVL TGRRGADAPG AERLRDELVA       1870       1880       1890       1900       1910       1920 TGARVTLAAC DVADRKAVAA LLDELAADGE TVRAVLHAAG VADLTSLENT GPEAFAAGVA       1930       1940       1950       1960       1970       1980 AKVDGALHLT ELLDHDSLDA FVLFSSIAGV WGSGDHGAYA AANAFLNALA EYNRARGIPT       1990       2000       2010       2020       2030       2040 TSIAWGVWNA FGVEGAGGIS EAVDLDQLHR RGLPLIEPEL GLTALRRALD RDETVLTVAP       2050       2060       2070       2080       2090       2100 VAWERFFPLF SAARPRPLFE DLPQVRALSA PVPTTAGPAV EPGRRGSGLG DLPLTDRDSA       2110       2120       2130       2140       2150       2160 LLALVRGESA SVLGYERPDR LDPDRALRDV GFDSLTAMEL RNRLATATGL TLPAALVFDH       2170       2180       2190       2200       2210       2220 PTPLAIAAYL KAELYGPDPG DDSSVLTELD GLSQRLAAID PDTNTRLEIT LRLRSLLTQW       2230       2240       2250 SEPDGGRTTA ETATATSTTA LESASADEVL AFIDTELGI Methods of Using the PKS

The present invention provides a method of producing a 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid or ketone, comprising: providing a host cell of the present invention, and culturing said host cell in a suitable culture medium such that the 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid or ketone is produced. The method can further comprise isolating said 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid or ketone from the host cell and the culture medium. A variety of methods for heterologous expression of PKS genes and host cells suitable for expression of these genes and production of polyketides are described, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,843,718; 5,830,750 and 6,262,340; WO 01/31035, WO 01/27306, and WO 02/068613; and U.S. Patent Application Pub. Nos. 20020192767 and 20020045220; hereby incorporated by reference.

The present invention provides for a composition comprising a 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid or ketone isolated from a host cell from which the 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid or ketone is produced, and trace residues and/or contaminants of the host cell. Such trace residues and/or contaminants include cellular material produced by the lysis of the host cell.

References Cited:

-   -   (1) Khosla, C., Tang, Y., Chen, A. Y., Schnarr, N. A., and         Cane, D. E. (2007) Annu. Rev. Biochem. 76, 195-221.     -   (2) Bihlmaier, C., Welle, E., Hofmann, C., Welzel, K., Vente,         A., Breitling, E., Muller, M., Glaser, S., and         Bechthold, A. (2006) Antinticrob. Agents Chemother. 50,         2113-2121.     -   (3) Schulman, M. D., Valentino, D., and Hensens, O. (1986) J.         Antibiot. 39, 541-549.     -   (4) Chen, T. S., Arison, B. H., Gullo, V. P., and         Inamine, E. S. (1989) J. Ind. Microbiol. 4, 231-238.     -   (5) Cane, D. E., Liang, T.-C., Kaplan, L. K., Nallin, M. K.,         Schulman, M. D., Hensens, O. D., Douglas, A. W., and         Albers-Schonberg, G. (1983) J. Am. Chemn. Soc. 105, 4.110-4112.     -   (6) Murli, S., Kennedy, J., Dayem, L. C., Carney, J. R., and         Kealey, J. T. (2003) J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 30, 500-509.     -   (7) Staunton, J., Caffrey, P., Aparicio, J. F., Roberts, G. A.,         Bethell, S. S., and Leadlay, P. F. (1996) Nat. Struct Biol. 3,         188-192.     -   (8) Tsai, S. C., Miercke, L. J., Krucinski, J., Gokhale, R,         Chen, J. C., Foster, P. G., Cane, D. E., Khosla, C., and         Stroud, R. M. (2001) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98,         14808-14813.     -   (9) Tang, Y., Kim, C. Y., Mathews, I. I., Cane, D. E., and         Khosla, C. (2006) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103,         11124-11129.     -   (10) Van Draanen, N. A., Arseniyadis, S., Crimmins, M. T., and         Heathcock, C. H. (1991) J. Org. Chem. 56, 2499-2506.     -   (11) Pieper, R., Ebert-Khosla, S., Cane, D., and         Khosla, C. (1996) Biochemistry 35, 2054-2060.     -   (12) Jacobsen, J. R., Cane, D. E., and Khosla, C. (1998)         Biochemistry 37, 4928-4934.     -   (13) Weissman, K. J., Bycroft, M., Staunton, J., and         Leadlay, P. F. (1998) Biochemistry 37, 11012-11017.     -   (14) Hafner, E. W., Holley, B. W., Holdom, K. S., Lee, S. E.,         Wax, R. G., Beck, D., McArthur, H. A., and         Wernau, W. C. (1991) J. Antibiot. 44, 349-356.     -   (15) Dutton, C. J., Gibson, S. P., Goudie, A. C., Holdom, K. S.,         Pacey, M. S., Ruddock, J. C., Bu'Lock, J. D., and         Richards, M. K. (1991) J. Antibiot 44, 357-365.     -   (16) Kunze, B., Schabach, K., Zeeck, A., and Zahner, H. (1972)         Arch. Mikrobiol. 86, 147-174.     -   (17) Liou, G. F., Lau, J., Cane, D. E., and Khosla, C. (2003)         Biochemistry 42, 200-207.

The invention having been described, the following examples are offered to illustrate the subject invention by way of illustration, not by way of limitation.

EXAMPLE 1 Broad Substrate Specificity of the Loading Didomain of the Lipomycin Polyketide Synthase

Multimodular polyketide synthases (PKSs) are among the largest (2-7 MDa) and most complex enzymes known. They conduct a programmed, stepwise catalysis that leads to the generation of poly-β-ketones with varying degrees of reductions at the β-carbonyl centers. Polyketides are widely used as antibiotics and other pharmaceutical agents.

Multimodular PKSs are composed of several large polypeptides. Each polypeptide contains one or more modules, each of which minimally consists of a ketosynthase (KS) domain, an acyltransferase (AT) domain, and an acyl carrier protein (ACP) domain that are together responsible for a single round of decarboxylative condensation (polyketide chain elongation reaction). The module may contain a loading AT (AT_(L)) and a loading ACP (ACP_(L)) to catalyze the polyketide chain initiation reaction. It may also contain a ketoreductase (KR) domain, a dehydratase (DH) domain, and an enoyl reductase (ER) domain to reduce the newly generated β-ketone on the growing polyketide chain tethered to the ACP domain. The extended polyketide chain is then translocated to the KS domain in the next module in the same polypeptide or to the KS in another protein for subsequent condensation. Alternatively, chain growth is terminated by a thioesterase (TE) domain. Understanding the mechanism for this orderly process represents a fundamental challenge in assembly line enzymology.(1)

The fidelity and efficiency of the entire process are dictated by two levels of molecular recognition: protein-protein recognition and substrate specificity. To address the issue of intrinsic substrate specificity, we studied LipPks1, a PKS subunit of the lipomycin synthase from Streptomyces aureofaciens Tü117, which is a PKS nonribosomal peptide synthase hybrid that catalyzes the biosynthesis of β-lipomycin, the aglycone of acyclic polyene antibiotic α-lipomycin (FIG. 4A).(2) LipPks1 is composed of an AT_(L) domain, an ACP_(L) domain, a KS domain, an AT domain, a KR domain, and an ACP domain, a simple PKS that catalyzes polyketide chain initiation and elongation reactions. Bihlmaier, Bechthold, and co-workers have described a model in which LipPks1 initiates the synthesis using isobutyryl-CoA and elongates once with methylmalonyl-CoA.(2) The model was based on the structure of the corresponding segment of α-lipomycin and the amino acid sequence similarity between the AT_(L) domain of LipPks1 and the AT_(L) domain of the avermectin PKS, which is believed to initiate polyketide synthesis using 2-methylbutyryl-CoA or isobutyryl-CoA as the starter substrate.(3-5)

To test the model biochemically, we constructed an expression vector that encodes N-terminal hexahistidine tagged LipPks1 with the TE domain from the 6-deoxyerythronolide B synthase (DEBS) from Saccharopolyspora erythraea (LipPks1+TE) to release intermediates tethered to the ACP domain (FIG. 4B). We also constructed expression vectors encoding the protein that lacks the proline and arginine-rich N-terminal linker [(−NL)LipPks1+TE] and the TE-truncated version, which is essentially LipPks1. We used Escherichia coli K207-3 as a host for expression of the different PKS gene sets. E. coli K207-3 is an engineered strain whose genome encodes sfp from Bacillus subtilis that encodes the substrate promiscuous surfactin phosphopantetheinyl transferase that converts the expressed PKS apoproteins to their corresponding holo forms.(6) E. coli K207-3 is described in Pfeifer, et al. ((2001) Science 291, 1790-1792, and Murli, et al. ((2003) J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 30, 500-509).

Protein production was analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfatepolyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. LipPks1+TE was almost exclusively produced in the soluble fraction (FIG. 6A). (−NL)LipPks1+TE was also produced in the soluble fraction, although a significant amount was insoluble. In addition, the lysate displayed a large amount of soluble protein running in the gel between 160 and 260 kDa, suggesting that the proline and arginine-rich linker is contributing to stable protein folding, at least in E. coli. Surprisingly, a relatively low level of production was observed for LipPks1. This protein corresponds to a natural LipPks1 but lacks the C-terminal linker that is proposed to bind the N-terminal linker of the LipPks2 subunit. This result may suggest that the linker itself stabilizes the LipPks1 structure. Structural studies of DEBS, which is the most extensively studied multimodular PKS, demonstrated that each module forms a homodimer and that homodimerization is driven by the KS domains and the TE domain.(7-9) One possible explanation of the soluble and relatively stable production of LipPks1+TE is that adding a TE domain stabilized the homodimeric structure of LipPks1. LipPks1+TE was purified by Ni affinity chromatography followed by anion exchange chromatography to yield 2 mg of protein from 1 L of E. coli culture (FIG. 6C).

Isobutyryl-CoA, methylmalonyl-CoA, and NADPH were incubated with or without LipPks1+TE, and the production of 3-hydroxy-2,4-dimethylpentanoate (1a) was monitored by liquid chromatography and mass spectroscopy (LC-MS). The MS measurements were taken in the selected ion monitoring mode (m/z 145). As shown in FIG. 5B, a strong signal was observed in the presence of LipPks1+TE at 9.0 min. To confirm the production, we chemically synthesized 1a. The ¹H NMR data indicated that the compound was a mixture of diastereomers (26:1 syn:anti).(10) We analyzed the authentic standard by LC-MS and observed two peaks at 8.2 and 9.1 min (FIG. 5C). The product generated by LipPks1+TE appears to have the same stereochemistry as the second peak, which is (2S,3S)-1a and/or (2R,3R)-1a. The amino acid sequence of the KR domain suggests the 2S,3S product (FIG. 7). We also monitored the β-keto product of 1a by LCMS (m/z 143). No product was observed in the presence of NADPH (data not shown). The steady-state kinetic parameters for the reaction were determined: k_(cat)=0.053 min⁻¹; K_(M)(isobutyryl-CoA)=2.9 μM; and K_(M)(methylmalonyl-CoA)=1.3 μM (Table 2).

To analyze the substrate specificity of the AT domain, we tested malonyl-CoA as a potential extender substrate. Malonyl-CoA was not accepted (data not shown), indicating the AT domain is specific for methylmalonyl-CoA. We also monitored production of 3-hydroxy-2-methylpentanoate (1b) by LC-MS (m/z 131) because DEBS1 was previously shown to start the catalytic cycle using methylmalonyl-CoA as a sole substrate where the methylmalonyl moiety on the ACP is decarboxylated by the KS domain, followed by transfer of the resulting propionyl group back to the KS domain where it could act as a primer for condensation with a new methylmalonyl-ACP extender (FIG. 8).(11-13) Production of 1b was not observed (data not shown), indicating that either the backtransfer reaction is slower than the rate-limiting step for 1a production or the KS does not accept a propionyl group. However, as descried below, the KS domain can accept the propionyl group as a starter, which refutes the latter hypothesis.

The amino acid sequence of the AT_(L) domain of LipPks1 is 50% identical to that of the AT_(L) domain of the avermectin PKS, which is known to accept a variety of starter substrates.(2) Previous studies showed that an engineered Streptomyces avermitilis produced more than 40 avermectin analogues when the culture was fed different carboxylic acids.(14, 15) To analyze the substrate tolerance of the AT_(L) domain of LipPks1, we incubated the enzyme with acetyl-CoA, propionyl-CoA, n-butyryl-CoA, 2-methylbutyryl-CoA, isovaleryl-CoA, or pivaloyl-CoA at the saturation concentration of methylmalonyl-CoA (200 μM) with NADPH. No product was observed when acetyl-CoA was used as a starter substrate (data not shown). The other acyl-CoAs, however, gave the corresponding products, which are 3-hydroxy-2-methylpentanoate (1b), 3-hydroxy-2-methylhexanoate (1c), 3-hydroxy-2,4-dimethylhexanoate (1d), 3-hydroxy-2,5-dimethylhexanoate (1e), and 3-hydroxy-2,4,4-trimethylpentanoate (1f), which were confirmed by LC-MS analysis (m/z 131 for 1b, m/z 145 for 1c, and m/z 159 for 1d-f) with chemically synthesized authentic standards (FIGS. 9-13). The steady-state kinetic parameters for the reactions are listed in Table 2. The k_(cat)/K_(M) values for isobutyryl-CoA and 2-methylbutyryl-CoA were comparable, which correlates well with avermectin biosynthesis in S. avermitilis in which isobutyryl- and 2-methylbutyryl-started products were isolated.(3, 5) Interestingly, the α-lipomycin analogue that would use 2-methylbutyryl-CoA as a starter was not observed in S. aureofaciens Tü117.(2, 16) One possibility is that the intracellular concentration of 2-methylbutyryl-CoA is far below the K_(M) for LipPks1. The k_(cat) values for all substrates investigated, except pivaloyl-CoA, were similar; the k_(cat) value for pivaloyl-CoA was substantially lower than the others. The basis for the relatively low k_(cat) with pivaloyl-CoA is not understood but may be related to the different rates of nucleophilic attack of the carbanion on the KS-linked substrates in the chain elongation reactions. These data suggest that production of α-lipomycin is tightly controlled by regulation of intracellular acyl-CoA concentrations.

The substrate specificity of the loading didomains of multimodular PKSs is usually assumed from the structure of the corresponding segment of polyketide products. However, this methodology depends on the products isolated under particular culture conditions, which might not reflect the actual substrate preference. The intrinsic substrate specificity can be determined by only in vitro kinetic analysis.(17) Our kinetic studies revealed broad substrate specificity of the loading didomain of LipPks1, highlighting the importance of using biochemistry to determine substrate flexibility.

TABLE 2 Steady-State Kinetic Parameters for the Formation of 1a-f by LipPks1 + TE k_(cat) K_(M) k_(cat)/K_(M) substrate product (min⁻¹) (μM) (M⁻¹ s⁻¹) isobutyryl-CoA 1a 0.053 2.9 304.1 propionyl-CoA 1b 0.056 13.4 70.3 n-butyryl-CoA 1c 0.036 26.4 22.7 2-methylbutyryl-CoA 1d 0.126 8.8 237.0 isovaleryl-CoA 1e 0.290 128.1 38.0 pivaloyl-CoA 1f 0.002 8.8 4.1

In summary, analyzing substrate specificity is crucial to our understanding of polyketide biosynthesis by multimodular PKSs and to the design of hybrid PKSs. In this work, we focus on the LipPks1 subunit of the lipomycin synthase and provide the first insights into substrate specificity. We have uncovered broad substrate specificity of the loading didomain, which was not anticipated from the study of the PKS in its native host and led us to speculate that novel lipomycin analogues can be produced by increasing intracellular acyl-CoA concentrations.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

Chemicals

All chemicals were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich unless otherwise described.

Authentic Standard Synthesis

All NMR spectra were obtained on either a 400 MHz or a 600 MHz Bruker spectrometer. Chemical shifts (in ppm) were referenced to CDCl3 or D2O at room temperature (δ 1H=7.26 and δ 13C=77.16 for CDCl3, δ 1H=4.79 for D2O). A synthetic procedure analogous to that described for the synthesis of S2 and 1a was also used to obtain each of the final products 1b-f.

3-Propionylbenzo[d]oxazol-2(3H)-one (S1)

Following a reported procedure (Burlingame, M. A., Mendoza, E., and Ashley, G. W. (2004) Tetrahedron Lett 45, 2961-2964), a stirred solution of 2-benzoxazolonine (1 equiv, 102 mmol) in (CH3)2CO (90 mL) was treated with K2CO3 (1.15 equiv, 117 mmol) before addition of propionic anhydride (1 equiv, 102 mmol). The resulting mixture was stirred at room temperature (r.t.) for 3 h. The precipitated product was collected under filtration and dried in vacuo. Recrystallization in Et2O afforded a light tan solid, S1 (81.8 mmol, 80% yield). 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz) δ 8.09 (m, 1H), 7.24 (m, 3H), 3.15 (q, 2H), 1.29 (t, 3H).

3-(3-Hydroxy-2,4-dimethylpentanoyl)benzo[d]oxazol-2(3H)-one (S2)

Following a modified reported procedure, 1 to a solution of S1 (1 equiv, 5.23 mmol) in anhydrous CH2Cl2 (8 mL) at 0° C. under N2 was added TiCl4 (1.1 equiv, 5.75 mmol) over 5 min, and the resulting bright yellow slurry stirred vigorously for 15 min. Triethylamine (1.1 equiv, 5.75 mmol) was then added to the solution over 5 min, and the consequent blood red solution stirred for an additional 50 min. Isobutyraldehyde (2 equiv, 10.46 mmol) was added slowly over 1 h, and the mixture was stirred for a further 1.5 h before quenching with one volume 1M HCl. The aqueous phase was extracted with EtOAc. The combined organic layers were then washed with 1 M HCl followed by saturated NaHCO3, and finally concentrated by rotary evaporation. Column chromatography followed by recrystallization in Et20/hexanes (1:1) afforded a white solid, S2 (2.54 mmol, 49% yield), which was used directly in the next step of the reaction procedure.

3-Hydroxy-2,4-dimethylpentanoic acid (1a)

Following a modified previously reported procedure (Evans, D. A., Britton, T. C., and Ellman, J. A. (1987) Tetrahedron Lett 28, 6141-6144), to a solution of S2 (1 equiv, 1.07 mmol) in THF (3 mL) at 0° C. was added a solution of LiOH (2 equiv, 2.14 mmol) and H2O2 (7 equiv, 7.49 mmol) in water (1 mL). The reaction was stirred at 0° C. for 4 h, and then quenched with one volume Na2SO4. The organic layer was removed via rotary evaporation. The aqueous layer was then washed with CH2Cl2, acidified with one volume 1 M HCl, and extracted with EtOAc. The combined organic layers were washed with 1 M HCl and then concentrated using a rotary evaporator. Column chromatography afforded a mixture of diastereomers as a tan/white solid, 1a (0.919 mmol, 86% yield). 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 3.64 (dd, 1H), 2.72 (qd, 1H), 1.73 (m, 1H), [1.24, 1.21; 1:25] (d, 3H), [1.03, 0.99; 23:1] (d, 3H), [0.94, 0.89; 1:30] (d, 3H). 13C NMR (100 MHz, CDCl3) δ 182.03, 76.84, 41.92, 30.80, 19.20, 18.83, 9.93. ESI-MS (1a−H) C7H13O3−Mw=145.18, Observed=145.1.

3-Hydroxy-2-methylpentanoic acid (1b)

Yellow oil; 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 6.93 (s br, 2H), 3.88 (ddd, 1H), 2.60 (qd, 1H), 1.50 (m, 2H), 1.18 (d, 3H), 0.96 (t, 3H). 13C NMR (150 MHz, CDCl3) δ 181.13, 73.53, 43.93, 26.75, 10.46, 10.39. ESI-MS (1b−H) C6H11O3−Mw=131.16, Observed=131.2.

3-Hydroxy-2-methylhexanoic acid (1c)

Brown oil; 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 4.01 (ddd, 1H), 2.64 (qd, 1H), 1.55 (m, 2H), 1.47 (m, 2H), 1.25 (d, 3H), 0.99 (t, 3H). 13C NMR (150 MHz, CDCl3) δ 180.93, 71.67, 44.30, 35.96, 19.32, 14.06, 10.56. ESI-MS (1c−H) C7H13O3−Mw=145.18, Observed=145.1.

3-Hydroxy-2,4-dimethylhexanoic acid (1d)

Brown oil, mixture of diastereomers; 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 3.73 (dd, 1H), 2.71 (dq, 1H), 1.76 (m, 1H), 1.48 (m, 1H), [1.26 (d), 1.22 (d), 1.18 (d); 1:6:24 (3H)], 1.18 (m, 1H), [0.96 (d), 0.84 (d); 1:4 (3H)], 0.90 (t, 3H). 13C NMR (100 MHz, CDCl3) 6 [182.09, 191.73; 4:1], 75.32, [42.30, 41.66; 1:4], [37.12, 37.00; 1:4], [25.96, 25.02; 1:4], [15.04, 14.20; 4:1], [11.22, 11.00; 1:4], 9.35. ESI-MS (1d−H) C8H15O3−Mw=159.21, Observed=159.2.

3-Hydroxy-2,5-dimethylhexanoic acid (1e)

Tan/white solid, mixture of diastereomeres; 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 4.05 (ddd, 1H), 2.59 (qd, 1H), 1.78 (m, 1H), 1.48 (m, 1H), 1.21 (d, 3H), 1.19 (m, 1H), [0.95 (d), 0.93 (d); 1:1, 6H]. 13C NMR (150 MHz, CDCl3) δ 179.43, 70.03, 44.46, 42.76, 24.83, 23.57, 22.00, 10.72. ESI-MS (1e−H) C8H15O3−Mw=159.21, Observed=159.2.

3-Hydroxy-2,4,4-trimethylpentanoic acid (1f)

White solid, mixture of diastereomers; 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 3.68 (d, 1H), 2.75 (qd, 1H), [1.38 (d), 1.25 (d); 5:3 (3H)], [0.96 (s), 0.94 (s); 3:2 (9H)]. 13C NMR (150 MHz, CDCl3) δ 180.35, [82.76, 78.27; 18:5], 39.28, [36.14; 35.86; 18:5], [26.76, 26.26; 18:5], [18.52, 12.41; 18:5]. ESI-MS (1f−H) C8H15O3−Mw=159.21, Observed=159.2.

Substrate Synthesis

2-Methylbutyryl-CoA (2a)

Following a previously reported procedure (Wu, N., Tsuji, S. Y., Cane, D. E., and Khosla, C. (2001) J Am Chem Soc 123, 6465-6474), 2-methylbutyryc acid (1 equiv, 26 μmol), CoA (lithium salt, 1.1 equiv, 29 μmol), and PyBOP (1.5 equiv, 39 μmol) were dissolved in a solution of THF (0.39 mL) and 4% K2CO3 (0.39 mL) and stirred under N2 for 40 min. The reaction mixture was diluted by addition of 2 mL water and injected onto ZORBAX SB-C18 column (50 mm length, 9.4 mm internal diameter, 5 μM particle size). The mobile phase was composed of 50 mM NaH2PO4 (pH=4.2) in water (solvent A) and methanol (solvent B). The acyl-CoA product was separated using the following gradient: 2.5% to 31% B for 12 min, 31% to 95% B for 1 min, held at 95% B for 2 min, 95% to 2.5% B for 2 min, held at 2.5% B for 2 min. A flow rate of 5 mL/min was used throughout. After removal of methanol, the eluted product was lyophilized and desalted by reinjection onto the same column. For desalting, the mobile phase was composed of water (solvent A) and methanol (solvent B). The product was separated using the following gradient: 2.5% to 31% B for 12 min, 31% to 95% B for 1 min, held at 95% B for 2 min, 95% to 2.5% B for 2 min, held at 2.5% B for 2 min. Lyophilization of the eluted product facilitated isolation of a white solid, 2a (6.5 μmol, 25% yield). 1H NMR (600 MHz, D2O) δ 8.66 (s, 1H), 8.39 (s, 1H), 6.27 (d, 1H), 4.94 (m, 2H), 4.68 (t, 1H), 4.2 (t, 2H), 4.11 (s, 1H), 3.92 (dd, 1H), 3.65 (dd, 1H), 3.53 (t, 2H), 3.41 (t, 2H), 3.07 (t, 2H), 2.71 (h, 1H), 2.51 (t, 2H), 1.68 (m, 1H), 1.53 (m, 1H), 1.18 (d, 3H), 0.98 (s, 3H), 0.92 (t, 3H), 0.86 (s, 3H). ESI-MS (2a+H) C26H45N7O17P3S+Mw=852.17, Observed=852.2.

Pivaloyl-CoA (2b)

Pivalic acid (1 equiv, 26 μmol) was used instead of 2-methylbutyryc acid in the experimental procedure described above to obtain a white solid, 2b (10.0 μmol, 38% yield). 1H NMR (600 MHz, D2O) δ 8.75 (s, 1H), 8.50 (s, 1H), 6.30 (d, 1H), 4.96 (m, 2H), 4.69 (t, 1H), 4.34 (t, 1H), 4,13 (s, 1H), 3.95 (dd, 1H), 3.68 (dd, 1H), 3.55 (t, 2H), 3.42 (t, 2H), 3.06 (t, 2H), 2.52 (t, 2H), 1.28 (s, 9H), 1.02 (s, 3H), 0.89 (s, 3H). ESI-MS (2b+H) C26H45N7O17P3S+Mw=852.17, Observed=852.2.

Synthetic Gene

The gene encoding Streptomyces aureofaciens Tü117 LipPks1+Saccharopolyspoera erythraea 6-deoxyerythronolide B synthase thioesterase domain (LipPks1+TE) with codons optimized for expression in Escherichia coli was ordered from DNA2.0.

A codon-optimized gene sequence of His-LipPks1+TE is as follows:

(SEQ ID NO: 11) ATGGGCAGCAGCCACCACCACCACCACCACAGCAGCGGCCTGGTCCCGCG TGGTTCCCACATGGCAGGTCCACCGCCGTTCCCGCGTCGTCGTGGCCCGA GCGGCCGTCGTCGTTGCGGCGGTCGTGCTACCCCGGGTAGCGTCCGTGAC CGTACGGGTCGTCGTCCGGCAGCCGTTCCGAGCCGTGCAGTTTGCGCAGC GGATCTGTGCGAAGAAAATGACGACGGCTCGAAGAATGTTTCTGAACATC GCGGTAGCGCAGGTGGTTCCGTGCTGTTTCCACGTACCGGCACCGTCCTG CCGTGGGTACTGACCGGTCCTGGCGCAGCGGCGGTTCGCGCACGCTCCGA AGCACTGCGCACGCACCTGCGTGCGAGCACCGAGTGGTCCCCTGCGGGCG TCGGTCAGGCGCTGCTGGCCGGTACGGGTGCGGGTGCCGATACCCACCGT GCCGTTGTTCTGGCAGGCGACCGTGCCCAGACCCTGAACGCATTGGCAGC GCTGAGCGCAGGCGCAGACCACCCGGCAGTTTTCACCAGCACTCGTGCGG ATGCAAGCCCGGCTGGCCCGGTGTTTGTGTTCCCGGGTCAAGGCTCGCAG TGGACCGGTATGGCTCGTGAACTGCTGGACTCCGCACCGGTTTTCGCGCG TAAGCTGCACGACTGTGCAGACGCGTTTGCCCCGTACCTGGGCCACAGCC TGCTGGATAGCGTCACCGGTGCAGCAGGTGGTCCAGAGCCTGTTGGCGCG GACGTCGTCCAACCGGCGCTGTTCGCCGTTATGGTTGCGCTGACTGATCT GTGGAACGCGGCTGGCGTTGCACCGGGTGCACTGCTGGGTCACTCCCTGG GTGAACTGGCAGCCGCGCATGTCGCGGGTGTTCTGTCCCTGGACGATTCT GCTCGCGTCGTGGCGCGTTGGAGCCAAGCGCAGGCTACGTTGGCGGGTCG TGGTGACATGGTCAGCGTTCTGTTGCCTGCGGATGAATTGGCGGACCTGC TGGACCGCCGTTGGCCGGGTCGCTTGGTTGTGGCGGTTGAAAACGGTCCA GGTAGCGCGGTCGCGAGCGGTGACCTGGACGCTGCGGCGGAACTGGTCGC ACACCTGACCGCCGAAGGTATCCACGCGCGTCGCGTTGACGTGGGCCTGG CGGCTCACAGCCCGCACATTGACGCGATCCTGCCACGTATTCGCGCGGAC ATCGCGCCGATTCGTGCGCATACGCCGAGCATCCCGGTTTATTCGGCGCT GCATGGTGGTGCACTGGATGGCACGCCAATGGACGCGGCGTACTGGTGTC GTAATCTGCGCTCCACTGTACGTTTCGCGGACGCGACCCGTGCAGCCCTG GAGGCAGGCCATACCACGTTTGTGGAGGTAAGCCCACATCCGGTCCTGAC TACGGCGATGGAGGTGAGCGCAACCCGTGCCGCGCACGCAGCAACTGTCC TGGGTACGCTGCGCCGTGGTGAGGGTGGTCCGAGCCGCTTCCTGGCGAGC CTGGCCGAACTGCATGTCAGCGGTGGTGATGCCGATCTGCGTACGGTTCT GCCGGCTAGCCAGGCGGCTGGCTTGCCGGAAACCGTTCTGACGGCGGGTC CGCGTGGCGAGAGCGCGGATGGCGACTCTCGTCATGAGGTTCTGTGCGCA CGCCTGGCACCGCTGGACCCAGCGGAGCGTCGTGCCCAGCTGCTGACTGT TGTTCGTGAAAGCGCAGCTGCCGCGCTGGACGGCGACGATCAAGGTAGCA TTGACGGTCGTCGCACGTTCCGTGACCTGGGTATCACGTCGCTGGCAGCG GTGGGCATCCGTGATCGCCTGCATTCCGCAACCGGTCTGCGTCTGTCTCC GACCGTTGTGTTTGATCATCCGACCCCGGACGCACTGGCGGCACACTTGG ACACCGAACTGTTCGGCACGGGCGCAGATGCCGAGCCGGCACCAGCTGCG GGTGGTCGTGCGGTGCCGCATGACGAACCAATTGCGATCGTGGGTATGGC GTGCCGTTACCCTGGCGGCGTTGGTGCACCGGCCGACCTGTGGCGTACCG TTCTGGCCGGTGTCGACGCAGTTGGTCCGCTGCCGGCTGATCGTGGCTGG AATATTGCGGACGGTTACGATCCGGAGCTGGCGGGTCCTGGTCGTTTTAG CCAGCGTGAGGGCGGCTTTCTGCACGACGCAGCTGAATTTGATGCGGAGT TCTTTGGTATTAGCCCGCGTGAGGCATTGGCGATGGACCCGCAGCAACGT TTGGCTCTGGAAAGCGCCTGGGAAGCGATTGAGGATGCGGGTCTGGACGC CCATAGCCTGCGTGGCAGCCGTACTGGCGTTTTTCTGGGCTTGATTACCC AGGATTATGGTCCTCGTGCGGGTGAGCCGACCACGCGTGCAGGTGCGGTG GAGGGTCACCTGTTCCTGGGTAGCACTGGCAGCGTCGCAAGCGGTCGTCT GAGCTATACCTTGGGTCTGGAAGGTCCGTCTTTGACGATTGATACGGCAT GTTCGAGCAGCCTGGTGGCACTGCACGAAGCATGTCAAGCGCTGCGTACC GGTGATTGCGACATGGCTCTGACTGGTGGTGTGACGGTCATGCCGAGCAC CGGCATGTTGGTCGAGTTCAGCCGTCAGCGTGGTCTGTCGCCTGACGGCC GTTGTAAAGCCTTTTCTGCATCTGCCGACGGTTTTGGTCTGGCGGAAGGT GTCGGTATGCTGGTGGTTGAGCGTCTGAGCGATGCGCGTCGTCTGGGCCA TCGTGTGCTGGCGGTGGTGCGCGGTTCTGCGGTTAACCAAGATGGCGCGA GCAATGGCCTGTCGGCGCCTAGCGGCCCAGCACAACAGCGCGTTATTCGC CAGGCGCTGGTCAACGCTGGCGTCCAAGCATCCCAAGTGGACGTTGTCGA AGCACATGGCACCGGTACGAAACTGGGCGATCCGATTGAGGCTCAAGCCC TGCAAGCGACCTATGGCCAGGGCCGTCCGGCTGAGCGCCCGTTGTGGTTG GGTTCTCTGAAGTCCAATATCGGCCACGCGCAAGCGGCAGCGGGTGTGGG CGGTGTTATCAAAATGGTCATGGCGTTGCGTGAAGGCGTCCTGCCACCGA CCCTGCACGCAGACGAGCCGAGCCCGCATATTGACTGGTCGGCGGGTCAG GTTCGTCTGCTGACCGAGGAACGCGAGTGGCCGGAGGCAGGTCACCCTCG CCGTGCGGCAGTTTCGAGCTTCGGTGTTAGCGGTACCAACGCACATGTGA TTCTGGAAGCTGCACCGGGTACGGGTGGTGCGCCAGAAGTTTCGGACGGT GTCCTGGGTAGCGCGCCTGAAACGGTCCCGTGGGTGCTGAGCGCTGCAAG CCCTGACGCATTGCGTGCACAAGCAGAGCGTCTGCGCGGTCATGTGGCGG AGCGTCCGGGTCTGGCTTCCGCCGATGTCGCGTTTGCGCTGGCGACCCGT CGTACCGCGCTGGAATATCGCGCGGTGGCGGTTGGTGCGGAGCGCGACGA GCTGCTGGATACCTTGGACGCGCTGAGCGCCGGTCGTCCGGCACCGCGTG CTGTACCGGGTGACGCGGCTGCGCATAGCCGTCGTCCGGTTTTCGTCTTT CCGGGTCAGGGTAGCCAGTGGGCAGGTATGGCGGTTGAACTGCTGGACAG CAGCCCGGTTTTTGCGGACAGCATGCACGCATGTTCCGAGGCCCTGAATG AATTTGTTGACTGGAACCTGCTGGAAGTTCTGCGTAGCGGTGACGAAGAG CTGTCTAACCGTGTTGATGTCGTCCAACCGGTGCTGTGGGCAGTTATGGT GAGCCTGGCAGCTCTGTGGCAAGCGTGTGGCGTCCGTCCTGCGGCGGTTG TGGGTCACAGCCAAGGTGAGATTGCAGCTGCCGTTGTCGCAGGTGCACTG AGCCTGCGTGATGGTGCCCGCGTTGTTGCATTGCGTAGCGCAGTGATCGC GCGTCTGCTGGCAGGTAAGGGTGCGATGGCGAGCGTGGCTCTGGCGTCTG ACACCGTTCGTGAGCGCCTGACCCCGTGGGAAGGTCGTCTGTCTCTGGCA GCGGTCAATGGTCCGAGCAGCAGCGTTGTTTGCGGCCATCTGGATGCACT GGACGAGTTCGTTAGCGCGTTGGAGCACGATGGCGTGCGTGTGCGTCGCA TCGCGGTTGACTACGCAAGCCATAGCGTGTTCGTGGAGCAGGCAGAAGAA GAGCTGCGTAATGTCCTGACCGAGGTGAGCCCTTTGCCGGGTCAAGTCCC TTTCTACAGCACCGTGACCGGTGCGGTTCTGGATACCACGACTCTGGACG CCGGCTACTGGTATCGTAACTTGCGTCAGACGGTTCGTTTCGAAGAAACC GTGCGTGAGCTGACGCGCCGTGGCCACGACGCGTTCATCGAGGTGTCGGC TCATCCGGTTCTGACCGTCGGCATTCAGGATACCTTGGAAGCCACCGGCA CCCGCCATGCAGTCTGCGGTACGCTGCGTCGTGGTGAGGGCGGTGCGCAG CGTTTGCTGACCAGCCTGGGTGAAGCGTGGGTTGCCGGCATTGCGGTGGA CTGGAGCCGCTTGACGCCGACGACGACCGCTGTCCAACTGCCGACCTACG CATTTCAGCATCAGCGTTACTGGCTGGATAGCACCACTGCAAACACTGGT GACCGTCCGGCAGCGGACCGTGACACCGCATTTTGGGAAGCTGTGCAGCA CACCGACCTGGACGCCTTCGCTGCAGAATTGGACATTGCCCCGGATGCGC CGTTGGGCACCGTCTTGCCGGCTCTGGCTGACTGGCGTCAACGCCTGCGT ACGGCAGCGGCTGTTGACGCATGGCGTTACCGCACCGCCTTTAAACGTCT GCCAGATGCGCCAGGTGCACCAGTCCTGACGGGCAGCTGGCTGGCCGTAG TTCCGGTGCGTCACCTGGATGATCCGAGCGTTACCACTAGCCTGGATGCA GTTGCTAAAGCGGGTGCGGAAGTCGTTCAGTTGGCAATCGAAGATGCGGA CGCGGACGTTGATCGTCTGACTGAGCGCTTGCGTGGCCTGGTTGCCGGTC TGGGTGCCGCGCCGGCGGGCATTATGAGCTTCCTGGGTCTGGATGAAGAG CGTCATCGTGACCACCCGGCGATGCCGAGCGGTCTGGCCACCAGCTTGGC GCTGGTCCGCGCCTTGGGTCGTGCGGGCATCGGTGCACCGCTGTGGATGG TTACGCGTGAGGCAGTGGCAGCGGGTCAAGACACGCACCCGCATGCGCCT CTGGGTAGCCTGATCTGGGGTCTGGGCCAAGTGACGGCTCTGGAGCACGC AGATCGCTGGGGTGGTCTGATCGATCTGCCGGGTGTGTGTGATGCGCGCG TTGCCCGCATGCTGTGCGCGGGTCTGAGCGGCCGTGGTGCCGAAGATCAG CTGGCCCTGCGTCCGAGCGGCACTTTCGTCCGCCGTCTGGCGCATATCCC TGGCGAGCAACGTGCAGCACGTCGTAGCTGGCAACCACGTGGTACGGTGA TTGTCACCGGTGGTACGGGTGCGCTGGGTGCAGTCCTGGCCCGCTGGTTG GCTACCGAGGACGCGGAGCACCTGGTGCTGACCGGCCGTCGTGGCGCGGA CGCCCCTGGCGCGGAGCGTTTGCGTGACGAGCTGGTCGCTACGGGCGCTC GTGTCACGCTGGCGGCGTGCGACGTGGCAGATCGCAAAGCCGTCGCCGCA TTGCTGGACGAACTGGCTGCGGACGGCGAGACTGTTCGCGCAGTTCTGCA CGCTGCGGGTGTCGCCGATCTGACGTCGCTGGAGAATACCGGTCCAGAAG CGTTCGCGGCAGGCGTGGCCGCGAAGGTCGATGGTGCACTGCACCTGACC GAACTGTTGGATCACGATTCGCTGGATGCGTTTGTGTTGTTCAGCAGCAT TGCGGGTGTTTGGGGTTCCGGCGACCACGGCGCGTATGCGGCTGCGAACG CATTTCTGAATGCGTTGGCAGAGTACAATCGTGCACGCGGTATCCCGACC ACGAGCATCGCATGGGGCGTTTGGAACGCGTTTGGCGTCGAGGGTGCAGG CGGTATCAGCGAGGCGGTTGATTTGGACCAGCTGCATCGTCGCGGCCTGC CGCTGATTGAACCAGAGCTGGGTCTGACTGCACTGCGTCGCGCTCTAGAC CGTGACGAAACGGTGCTGACGGTTGCTCCGGTTGCCTGGGAGCGCTTCTT TCCGCTGTTCTCCGCTGCACGTCCGCGTCCGTTGTTTGAGGACTTGCCGC AAGTGCGTGCCCTGAGCGCACCTGTCCCGACGACGGCGGGTCCGGCCGTG GAACCAGGTCGCCGTGGTAGCGGCCTGGGCGATTTGCCTCTGACGGATCG CGATAGCGCGCTGCTGGCCTTGGTCCGCGGTGAGAGCGCATCCGTGCTGG GTTACGAGCGTCCAGATCGCCTGGACCCGGACCGTGCGCTGCGTGATGTG GGTTTCGATAGCCTGACGGCGATGGAACTGCGTAACCGTCTGGCTACCGC GACCGGCCTGACGCTGCCTGCGGCCCTGGTGTTTGATCACCCGACCCCAC TGGCGATCGCGGCGTATCTGAAAGCCGAGCTGACGAGCCAGCTGGACTCC GGTACGCCTGCACGTGAAGCTAGCTCTGCACTGCGTGACGGCTACCGCCA AGCGGGTGTGAGCGGCCGTGTTCGTAGCTACCTGGATCTGTTGGCAGGTC TGTCGGATTTCCGCGAACATTTTGATGGTAGCGATGGTTTTAGCCTGGAT CTGGTTGATATGGCAGATGGTCCGGGTGAGGTGACCGTTATTTGCTGCGC GGGTACGGCTGCGATCTCTGGTCCGCATGAGTTCACCCGTCTGGCAGGTG CCCTGCGCGGCATTGCACCTGTTCGTGCGGTGCCGCAGCCGGGTTACGAA GAAGGCGAACCGCTGCCTTCTAGCATGGCGGCTGTTGCAGCTGTGCAGGC TGATGCTGTCATTCGTACGCAAGGCGATAAGCCGTTCGTGGTTGCGGGTC ACTCGGCAGGCGCGCTGATGGCGTACGCGCTGGCGACCGAACTGCTGGAT CGTGGTCACCCGCCTCGCGGTGTTGTCCTGATTGATGTGTACCCGCCTGG TCATCAGGACGCGATGAACGCGTGGCTGGAGGAACTGACGGCAACGTTGT TCGACCGTGAAACTGTTCGTATGGACGACACCCGTCTGACCGCGTTGGGT GCTTACGACCGCCTGACGGGTCAATGGCGTCCTCGCGAAACCGGTTTGCC GACCCTGTTGGTTAGCGCGGGTGAACCAATGGGCCCGTGGCCGGACGATA GCTGGAAACCGACCTGGCCTTTCGAGCACGACACCGTTGCGGTCCCGGGT GATCATTTCACGATGGTTCAAGAACATGCTGATGCGATTGCCCGTCACAT TGACGCCTGGCTGGGTGGCGGCAACAGCTGA Plasmid Construction pSY044

The synthetic gene was designed to have a NdeI site and a BamHI site at the 5′ and 3′ ends, respectively. These restriction sites were used to subclone the gene into the NdeI and BamHI sites in pET30b to construct pSY044.

pSY066

A PCR amplified NdeI-HindIII fragment corresponding to the (−NL)lipPks1+TE gene, which encodes a N-terminally truncated version of the protein that begins with the amino acid sequence VFVFPGQG (SEQ ID NO:12), was ligated into NdeI-HindIII-digested pET28b to construct pSY066.

pSY065

A PCR amplified NdeI-EcoRI fragment corresponding to the lipPks1 gene, which encodes a Cterminally truncated version of the protein that ends with the amino acid sequence AYLKAEL (SEQ ID NO:13), was ligated into NdeI-EcoRI-digested pET28b to construct pSY065.

Protein Production and Purification

An E. coli K207-3 strain harboring pSY044 was grown in LB medium supplemented with appropriate antibiotics at 37° C. until the OD600 reached 0.4-0.5. The cultures were then cooled to 18° C. and induced with 250 μM isopropyl-β-D-galactopyranoside for 16 h. The cells were harvested by centrifugation (4000 g, 5 min) and resuspended in lysis/wash buffer (50 mM phosphate, pH 7.6, 300 mM NaCl, 10 mM imidazole, 4° C.). The cells were lysed by sonication (8 ×30 sec) and cellular debris was removed by two subsequent centrifugations (4000 g, 30 min, 4° C.). Nickel-NTA agarose resin (Qiagen) was added directly to the supernatant (1 mL of resin per L of culture) and mixed for 1 h at 4° C. The resulting mixture was poured into a fritted column, washed with 10 resin volumes of lysis/wash buffer (4° C.), and eluted with 2 resin volumes of elution buffer (150 mM phosphate, pH 7.6, 50 mM NaCl, 150 mM imidazole, 4° C.). The eluted protein was then applied to a HiTRAP Q anion exchange column (GE Healthcare), washed with 10 resin volumes of wash buffer (50 mM phosphate, pH 7.6, 200 mM NaCl, 8% Glycerol, 4° C.), and eluted at approximately 375 mM NaCl. The buffer was exchanged into stock buffer (50 mM phosphate, pH 7.6, 8% glycerol, 4° C.) by dialysis using an Amicon Ultra-15 Centrifugal Filter, 100K device (Millipore). The resulting purified protein was stored at −80° C.

Kinetic Analysis

Starter Substrates

A Bradford protein assay was used to measure the concentration of LipPks1+TE. The concentrations of solutions containing various acyl-CoA compounds (acetyl-CoA, propionyl-CoA, n-butyryl-CoA, isobutyryl-CoA, 2-methylbutyryl-CoA, isovaleryl-CoA, or pivaloyl-CoA) were determined using the absorbance at 260 nm and calibration against known CoA concentration standards. Each time point was set up in a reaction volume of 75 μL. Samples containing 20 μM, 40 μM, 80 μM, 160 μM, or 320 μM of acyl-CoA were individually incubated with 200 μM methymalonyl-CoA and 500 μM NADPH in the presence of 0.5 μM LipPks1+TE in 100 mM phosphate buffer, pH 7.2, containing 2.5 mM TCEP at 23° C. The reactions were quenched at different time points by adding 75 μL of methanol and subsequently filtered with an Amicon Ultra-0.5 mL Centrifugal Filter, 3K device (Millipore) at 23° C. 10 μL of the resulting solutions were analyzed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Authentic standards (1a, 1b, 1c, 1d, 1e, and 1f) were used to quantify the products in the LC-MS analysis. We assumed that ionization efficiencies of diastereomers were identical.

Extension Substrate

Each time point was set up in a reaction volume of 75 μL. Samples containing 10 μM, 20 μM, or 40 μM methylmalonyl-CoA were individually incubated with 500 μM isovaleryl-CoA and 500 μM NADPH in the presence of 0.5 μM LipPks1+TE in 100 mM phosphate buffer, pH 7.2, containing 2.5 mM TCEP at 23° C. The reactions were quenched at different time points by adding 75 μL of methanol and subsequently filtered with an Amicon Ultra-0.5 mL Centrifugal Filter, 3K device (Millipore) at 23° C. 10 μL of the resulting solutions were analyzed by LC-MS. Authentic standard 1e was used to quantify the products in the LC-MS analysis. We assumed that ionization efficiencies of diastereomers were identical.

LC Analysis

LC separation of the enzymatically generated products conducted at 50° C. with an Inertsil ODS-3 reverse-phase column (250 mm length, 2.1 mm internal diameter, 3 μM particle size; GL Sciences) using a 1100 series high-performance liquid chromatography system (Agilent Technologies). The mobile phase was composed of 0.2% formic acid in water (solvent A) and 0.2% formic acid in methanol (solvent B). Products were separated using the following gradient: 60% to 100% B for 10 min, held at 100% B for 2 mM, 100% to 60% B for 1 min, held at 60% B for 17 min. A flow rate of 0.14 mL/min was used throughout.

MS Analysis

The LC system was coupled to an Agilent Technologies LC-MSD SL electrospray ionization mass (ESI MS) spectrometer. Nitrogen gas was used as both the nebulizing and drying gas to facilitate the production of gas-phase ions. The drying and nebulizing gases were set to 10 L/min and 20 lb/in2, respectively, and a drying gas temperature of 300° C. was used throughout. ESI was conducted in the negative-ion mode with a capillary voltage of 4 kV. Mass measurements were carried out in the selected ion monitoring mode (1a, m/z 145; 1b, m/z 131; 1c, m/z 145; 1d, m/z 159; 1e, m/z 159; 1f, m/z 159) at 1.01 s/cycle with a dwell time of 1 s for the detection of [M-H]− ions. The instrument was tuned for a range of m/z 50 to 3000 via the Agilent ES tuning mix. Data acquisition and processing were performed by an Agilent Chemstation (Agilent Technologies; Santa Clara, Calif.).

TABLE 3 Plasmids Plasmid Gene Parent Vector Resistance pSY044 His-LipPks1 + TE pET30b Kanamycin pSY066 His-(-NL)LipPks1 + TE pET28b Kanamycin pSY065 His-LipPks1 pET28b Kanamycin

EXAMPLE 2 Structurally Diverse Ketone Production by an Engineered Polyketide Synthase

Type I polyketide synthases (PKSs) are multi-subunit megaenzymes that carry out a programmed, step-wise process resulting in the generation of poly-β-ketones with varying degrees of reduction at the β-carbonyl centers. Here, we report engineered biosynthesis of structurally diverse β-keto-carboxylic acids by PKSs in vitro, which are then decarboxylated to produce the corresponding ketones. Short/branched-chain ketones such as methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) are industrially important solvents and are used in a variety of applications. We also report heterologous production of MEK in Escherichia coli. This technology could allow us to produce a variety of ketones in microbes from renewable carbon sources.

Type I polyketide synthases (PKSs) are multi-subunit megaenzymes that catalyze successive rounds of decarboxylative condensation in a fashion similar to fatty acid synthases (FASs). However, in contrast to FAS, each elongation step and subsequent processing of the newly generated β-carbonyl group is carried out in a separate subunit called a module. Diversity of modules not only can generate a huge diversity in the product structures but also offers a wealth of engineering opportunities¹.

Each module minimally consists of a ketosynthase (KS) domain, an acyltransferase (AT) domain, and an acyl carrier protein (ACP) domain that are together responsible for a single round of chain elongation reaction. Individual modules may also contain a specific subset of β-carbon-processing enzymes, including a ketoreductase (KR) domain, a dehydratase (DH) domain, and/or an enoylreductase (ER) domain. The extended polyketide chain is translocated to the KS of the next module for another round of condensation and β-carbon modification. The chain elongation reaction is initiated by a loading di-or tri-domain located at the N-terminus of the first module. Finally, the chain growth is terminated by a thioesterase (TE) domain located at the C-terminus of the last module which often gives a macrolactone.

Although TE-mediated macrocyclization is the best understood system and regarded as the canonical release mechanism for type I PKSs, several other types of chain release have been reported, including TE-mediated hydrolysis, and reductase domain catalyzed 2- or 4-electron reduction, which give a linear carboxylic acids, aldehydes or alcohols², respectively. However, to our knowledge, no natural PKS has been uncovered that releases its product as a ketone.

Two decades ago, ketone production was observed by McDaniel, Khosla, and co-workers where they introduced a PKS that was designed to produce a β-keto-carboxylic acid into Streptomyces coelicolor ^(3,4). They assumed that formation of the ketone resulted from non-enzymatic decarboxylation of β-keto-carboxylic acid. To further interrogate ketone release mechanisms and to demonstrate the potential of PKS as a platform to synthesize a variety of ketone compounds, we engineered a single PKS to produce 10 different β-keto-carboxylic acids and biochemically analyzed the corresponding ketone produced in vitro (FIG. 15). We also report heterologous production of some of these ketones in Escherichia coli, which includes the industrially important methyl ethyl ketone (MEK).

We recently showed that an engineered derivative of the lipomycin PKS produced a 3-hydroxy carboxylic acid in vitro in a multiple turnover fashion⁵. This PKS, LipPks1+TE, composed of a loading di-domain, a KS domain, an AT domain, a KR domain, an ACP domain, and the TE domain from 6-deoxyerythronolide B synthase (DEBS), catalyzes polyketide chain initiation, a single round of chain elongation, β-keto reduction with NADPH, and hydrolytic release of the product. To demonstrate the capability of producing β-keto-carboxylic acids, we simply removed NADPH from the in vitro reaction mixture and monitored production of 3-oxo-2,4-dimethylpentanoate (1) from isobutyryl-CoA and methylmalonyl-CoA by liquid chromatography and mass spectroscopy (LC-MS). The expected product 1 was not observed, however. We reasoned that spontaneous decarboxylation occurred during the reaction to give the corresponding ketone (2). MS measurement was then taken in the selected ion-monitoring mode for 2. Interestingly, we observed a strong peak but the elution time was not matched with the authentic ketone standard. When the reaction mixture was heated, the peak was gone and we observed a new peak, which was confirmed as the expected ketone product 2 (FIG. 16A). We also confirmed that the enzymatic reaction was catalyzed in a multiple turnover fashion and the production kinetics was basically the same as that of producing the 3-hydroxy carboxylic acid when NADPH was included in the incubation mixture. These data suggest that LipPks1+TE produces a β-keto-carboxylic acid in the absence of NADPH at 23° C. and that heating is necessary for decarboxylation. To study temperature dependence of decarboxylation of the β-keto-carboxylic acid, we incubated the reaction mixture at 23° C., 37° C., or 50° C. after quenching. Decarboxylation occurred even at 23° C. but with much lower efficiency than 37° C.

The loading di-domain of LipPks1 was shown previously to be substrate promiscuous and can process a wide variety of starter substrates with reasonable k_(cat)/K_(M) values, including propionyl-CoA, n-butyryl-CoA, isobutyryl-CoA, 2-methylbutyryl-CoA, and isovaleryl-CoA⁵. Hence, we incubated these starters with methylmalonyl-CoA to produce ketones 3-6; each ketone was verified against the authentic standard (FIG. 16A), except for ketone 5, which was not purchased. Because this product showed the correct molecular weight and the elution time was basically the same as the one for ketone 6, an isomer of 5, we concluded that ketone 5 was also produced.

The modular nature of type I PKS presents an attractive framework for engineering to generate diverse compounds. AT domains act as gatekeepers to building block incorporation, which makes them the primary target of PKS engineering efforts⁶. The most common approach for altering AT substrate specificity is the swapping of an entire AT domain for a homologue with different specificity. However, AT-swapped constructs generally exhibit decreased product titers⁷. In the accompanying paper, we describe an improved method for AT domain swapping that results in constructs that maintain product titer. Using this method, we created mutant 75 where the lipAT1 domain was exchanged with the one from module 1 of the borrelidin PKS, which is specific to malonyl-CoA. This mutant maintained the wild-type kinetics to produce the corresponding methyl ketones, which includes the industrially important MEK (ketone 8) and methyl isobutyl ketone, MIBK (ketone 11) when the corresponding starter units, propionyl-CoA and isovaleryl-CoA, respectively, were added to the reaction mixtures in vitro (FIG. 16B).

Short/branched-chain ketones such as acetone, MEK, MIBK and di-isobutyl ketone are industrially important solvents and are used in a variety of applications, including in paints, coatings, adhesives, magnetic tapes, and inks, or for cleaning, and extraction. These ketones are currently derived from petroleum sources. Toward sustainable production, we sought to engineer LipPks1+TE and mutant 75 to produce short/branched-chain ketones from renewable carbon sources in Escherichia coli. Specifically, we mutated the active site serine residues of KR domain (LFSSIAG, SEQ ID NO:7) of both LipPks1+TE and mutant 75 to alanine residues to produce ketones even in the presence of NADPH. These engineered PKSs were designated as mutant 87 and 88, respectively. The mutant proteins were purified and we confirmed that they were able to produce ketones in vitro in the presence of NAPDH, employed at concentrations equivalent to its intracellular level in E. coli ⁸.

E. coli K207-3 is an engineered strain whose genome encodes propionyl-CoA carboxylase from Streptomyces coelicolor that converts propionyl-CoA to methylmalonyl-CoA⁹. This strain can also convert exogenously fed propionate into propionyl-CoA by overexpressing the native propionyl-CoA ligase¹⁰. In addition, the genome encodes the substrate promiscuous phosphopantetheinyl transferase Sfp from Bacillus subtilis that converts the expressed apo-PKSs to their corresponding holo forms¹¹.

We transformed E. coli K207-3 with a plasmid encoding PKS mutant 87 or mutant 88 and cultured the two strains at 18° C. for three days in the presence of propionate. LC-MS analysis of the culture supernatants revealed the presence of the expected ketone products 3 and 8 (MEK), respectively (FIG. 17).

In summary, we have designed a number of PKSs to produce 10 different β-keto-carboxylic acids to investigate ketone production mechanisms and exploit the knowledge gained to produce short/branched-chain ketones in E. coli cultures. In vitro kinetic analysis of the engineered PKSs indicated that the KS domain of LipPks1 can process both malonyl-ACP and methylmalonyl-ACP with similar efficiency, and that the thioesterase domain of DEBS can hydrolyze β-keto-α-desmethylacyl-ACP, which is not the native substrate both for the α and β positions, without affecting the overall kinetics. For the AT swapping experiments, we used the improved methodology we recently developed. This method would also allow us to design PKSs that use other substrates such as ethylmalonyl-CoA and allylmalonyl-CoA to produce novel ketones in an efficient manner. In vitro ketone production analysis suggests that decarboxylation of β-keto-carboxylic acids is spontaneous but the reaction is very slow at temperatures where E. coli can produce functional type I PKSs (18° C.-22° C.)¹°. In fact, heating was required to detect ketones from E. coli cultures overexpressing engineered PKSs at 18° C. However, additional experiments are required to exactly measure the amount of MEK produced because the boiling point is lower than that of water and more than 75% of MEK actually evaporated during the culture in a control experiment (data not shown).

The present study shows the first rationally designed pathways to produce short/branched-chain ketones such as MEK and MIBK in microbes. Importantly, this PKS-based technology can be extended to produce longer ketones by introducing additional modules. We previously developed a pathway to produce propionyl-CoA from renewable carbon sources such as sugars ¹². Together with branched-chain keto acid dyhydrogenase from Bacillus subtilis or Streptomyces avermitilis that can produce isobutyryl-CoA, 2-methylbutyryl-CoA, and isovaleryl-CoA from the corresponding amino acids, we might be able to produce the full spectrum of ketones described here from renewable carbon sources.

REFERENCES CITE IN EXAMPLE 2

-   (1) Khosla, C.; Tang, Y.; Chen, A. Y.; Schnarr, N. A.; Cane, D. E.     Annual review of biochemistry 2007, 76, 195. -   (2) Du, L.; Lou, L. Natural product reports 2010, 27, 255. -   (3) McDaniel, R. e. a. J Am Chem Soc 1997. -   (4) Kao, C. M.; McPherson, M.; McDaniel, R. N.; Fu, H.; Cane, D. E.;     Khosla, C. J Am Chem Soc 1997, 119, 11339. -   (5) Yuzawa, S.; Eng, C. H.; Katz, L.; Keasling, J. D. Biochemistry     2013, 52, 3791. -   (6) Dunn, B. J.; Khosla, C. J R Soc Interface 2013, 10. -   (7) Hans, M.; Hornung, A.; Dziarnowski, A.; Cane, D. E.; Khosla, C.     J Am Chem Soc 2003, 125, 5366. -   (8) Bennett, B. D.; Kimball, E. H.; Gao, M.; Osterhout, R.; Van     Dien, S. J.; Rabinowitz, J. D. Nat Chem Biol 2009, 5, 593. -   (9) Murli, S.; Kennedy, J.; Dayem, L. C.; Carney, J. R.;     Kealey, J. T. Journal of industrial microbiology & biotechnology     2003, 30, 500. -   (10) Pfeifer, B. A.; Admiraal, S. J.; Gramajo, H.; Cane, D. E.;     Khosla, C. Science 2001, 291, 1790. -   (11) Lambalot, R. H.; Gehring, A. M.; Flugel, R. S.; Zuber, P.;     LaCelle, M.; Marahiel, M. A.; Reid, R.; Khosla, C.; Walsh, C. T.     Chemistry & biology 1996, 3, 923. -   (12) Yuzawa, S.; Chiba, N.; Katz, L.; Keasling, J. D. Biochemistry     2012, 51, 9779.

While the present invention has been described with reference to the specific embodiments thereof, it should be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes may be made and equivalents may be substituted without departing from the true spirit and scope of the invention. In addition, many modifications may be made to adapt a particular situation, material, composition of matter, process, process step or steps, to the objective, spirit and scope of the present invention. All such modifications are intended to be within the scope of the claims appended hereto. 

What we claim is:
 1. A hybrid polyketide synthase (PKS) comprising modules, domains, and/or portions thereof from two or more PKSs capable of synthesizing a 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid or ketone; wherein the PKS comprises a loading acyltransferase (AT_(L)) domain and a loading ACP (ACP_(L)) domain, both of LipPks1 of a lipomycin synthase of Streptomyces aureofaciens Tü117, a ketosynthase (KS) domain, an acyltransferase (AT) domain, a ketoreductase (KR) domain, an ACP domain of LipPks1 of a lipomycin synthase of Streptomyces aureofaciens Tü117, and a thioesterase (TE) domain appended to the C-terminus of the ACP domain of LipPks1; wherein the hybrid PKS has a broad substrate specificity; the 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid has the following chemical structure:

wherein R₁ is —H, R₂ is —H, —CH₃, —CH₂CH₃, —CH₂CH₂CH₃, —CH(CH₃)₂, —CH(CH₃)CH₂CH₃, —CH₂CH(CH₃)₂, —C₆H₁₁, or —C₆H₅, and R₃ is —H, —CH₃, —CH₂CH₃, —CH₂CH₂Cl, —CH₂CH═CH₂, or —CH₂CH₂COCH₃; and, the ketone has the following chemical structure:

wherein R is —CH₃, —CH₂CH₃, —CH₂CH₂CH₃, —CH(CH₃)₂, —CH(CH₃)CH₂CH₃, —CH₂CH(CH₃)₂, —C₆H₁₁, or —C₆H₅, and R′ is —CH₃, —CH₂CH₃, —CH₂CH₂Cl, —CH₂CH=CH₂, or —CH₂CH₂COCH₃.
 2. The hybrid PKS of claim 1, wherein the hybrid PKS is capable of synthesizing the 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid.
 3. The hybrid PKS of claim 2, wherein the hybrid PKS is capable of synthesizing:


4. The hybrid PKS of claim 1, wherein the hybrid PKS is capable of synthesizing the ketone.
 5. The hybrid PKS of claim 4, wherein the hybrid PKS is capable of synthesizing:


6. A recombinant nucleic acid encoding the polyketide synthase (PKS) of claim
 1. 7. A replicon comprising the recombinant nucleic acid 6, wherein the replicon is capable of stable maintenance in a host cell.
 8. The replicon of claim 7, wherein the replicon is a plasmid or vector.
 9. The replicon of claim 8, wherein the vector is an expression vector.
 10. A host cell comprising the replicon of claim
 7. 11. A host cell comprising the recombinant nucleic acid of claim
 6. 12. The host cell of claim 11, wherein the host cell when cultured produces the 3-hydroxycarboxylic acid or ketone. 